X-ray radiation sources with low neutron emissions for radiation scanning

1. A radiation source comprising:

a housing;

an acceleration chamber within the housing, the acceleration chamber having a peak acceleration energy greater than the neutron production threshold of tantalum, during use;

a source of charged particles supported by the housing to emit charged particles into the acceleration chamber; and

a target supported by the housing downstream of the acceleration chamber;

wherein:

impact of the target by the accelerated charged particles generates radiation; and

the target consists essentially of at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

2. The radiation source of claim 1 , wherein:

the peak acceleration energy is less than or equal to 8 MeV; and

the target is chosen from the group consisting of at least one isotope of carbon, aluminum, scandium, titanium, vanadium, manganese, cobalt, and copper.

3. The radiation source of claim 1 , wherein:

the peak acceleration energy is greater than 8 MeV and less than or equal to 9 MeV; and

the target is chosen from the group consisting of at least one isotope of aluminum, scandium, vanadium, manganese, cobalt, and copper.

4. The radiation source of claim 1 , wherein:

the peak acceleration energy is greater than 9 MeV and less than or equal to 10 MeV; and

the target is chosen from the group consisting of at least one isotope of aluminum, scandium, manganese, and cobalt.

5. The radiation source of claim 1 , wherein:

the peak acceleration energy is greater than 10 MeV and less than 11 MeV; and

the target is chosen from the group consisting of at least one isotope of scandium and aluminum.

6. The radiation source of claim 1 , wherein:

the peak acceleration energy is greater than 11 and less than about 13.1 MeV; and

the target consists essentially of aluminum.

7. The radiation source of claim 1 , further comprising:

a collimator coupled to the housing, the collimator comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

8. The radiation source of claim 7 , further comprising:

target shielding surrounding at least a portion of the target, the target shielding comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

9. The radiation source of claim 1 , further comprising:

housing shielding to shield the housing, the housing shielding comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

10. The radiation source of claim 1 , wherein:

the target consists essentially of at least one isotope of copper.

11. The radiation source of claim 1 , wherein the peak acceleration energy is at least about 7.7 MeV.

12. A radiation source comprising:

a housing;

an acceleration chamber within the housing, the acceleration chamber having a peak acceleration energy greater than the lowest neutron production threshold of tungsten, during use;

a source of charged particles supported by the housing to emit charged particles into the acceleration chamber;

a target supported by the housing downstream of the acceleration chamber; and

a collimator coupled to the housing, proximate the target material;

wherein:

impact of the target by the accelerated charged particles generates radiation; and

the collimator comprises at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

13. The radiation source of claim 12 , wherein the collimator comprises:

at least one first section consisting essentially of at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy; and

at least one second section comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold less than the peak acceleration energy.

14. The radiation source of claim 13 , wherein:

the first section is at least partially between the target and the second section.

15. The radiation source of claim 12 , further comprising:

target shielding to shield the target, the target shielding material comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

16. The radiation source of claim 12 , further comprising:

housing shielding to shield the housing, the housing shielding comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

17. The radiation source of claim 12 , wherein:

the collimator comprises copper.

18. The radiation source of claim 12 , wherein:

the peak acceleration energy is greater than the lowest neutron production threshold of molybdenum.

19. The radiation source of claim 18 , wherein:

the peak acceleration energy greater than the neutron production threshold of tantalum.

20. A radiation source comprising:

a housing comprising housing material;

an acceleration chamber within the housing, the acceleration chamber having a peak acceleration energy during use;

a source of charged particles supported by the housing to emit charged particles into the acceleration chamber;

a target supported by the housing downstream of the acceleration chamber; and

target shielding surrounding at least a portion of the target;

wherein:

impact of the target material by the accelerated charged particles generates radiation; and

the target shielding material comprises:

at least one first section consisting essentially of at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy, proximate the target; and

at least one second section comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold less than the peak acceleration energy;

wherein the at least one first section is at least partially between the target and the at least one second section.

21. The radiation source of claim 20 , wherein:

the first section of the target shielding comprises copper.

22. The radiation source of claim 20 , wherein the peak acceleration energy is greater than the lowest neutron production threshold of molybdenum.

23. The radiation source of claim 22 , wherein the peak acceleration energy is greater than the lowest neutron production threshold of tantalum.

24. The radiation source of claim 20 , further comprising:

housing shielding separate from the target shielding, surrounding, at least in part, the housing.

25. The radiation source of claim 20 , wherein the peak acceleration energy is greater than the lowest neutron production threshold of tungsten, during use.

26. A radiation source comprising:

a housing;

an accelerator chamber within the housing, the acceleration chamber having a peak acceleration energy of less than a lowest neutron production threshold of copper;

a source of charged particles to emit charged particles into the accelerator chamber;

a target supported by the housing, downstream of the accelerator chamber, wherein impact of the target by the accelerated charged particles generates radiation;

a collimator coupled to the housing, proximate the target;

target shielding at least partially surrounding the target to shield the target;

wherein:

the target, the collimator, and the target shielding comprise copper.

27. The radiation source of claim 26 , wherein the collimator comprises:

a first section consisting essentially of copper, proximate the target; and

a second section comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold less than the peak acceleration energy, downstream of the first section.

28. The radiation source of claim 27 , wherein the target shielding comprises:

a first section consisting essentially of copper, proximate the target; and

a second section comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold less than the peak acceleration energy

wherein the at least one first section is at least partially between the target and the at least one second section.

29. The radiation source of claim 27 , further comprising:

housing shielding to shield the housing;

wherein the housing shielding comprises copper.

30. The radiation source of claim 27 , further comprising:

lead shielding surrounding at least a portion of the collimator and the target shielding.

31. The radiation source of claim 27 , wherein the peak acceleration energy is less than or equal to about 9 MeV.

32. The radiation source of claim 26 , wherein:

the acceleration chamber has a peak acceleration energy greater than the lowest neutron production threshold of tungsten.

33. The radiation source of claim 32 , wherein the acceleration chamber has a peak acceleration energy greater than the lowest neutron production threshold of molybdenum.

34. The radiation source of claim 33 , wherein the acceleration chamber has a peak acceleration energy greater than the neutron production threshold of tantalum.

35. A method of generating radiation, comprising:

accelerating charged particles to a peak acceleration energy greater than the neutron production threshold of tantalum;

colliding the charged particles with a target consisting essentially of at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy; and

generating radiation from the collision of the charged particles with the target, without generating neutrons.

36. The method of claim 35 , further comprising:

collimating the generated radiation by a collimator comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

37. The method of claim 35 , further comprising:

shielding the target with shielding comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

38. The method of claim 35 , further comprising:

shielding the housing with shielding material comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

39. A system for examining a cargo conveyance, comprising:

a radiation source positioned to irradiate an object; and

a detector positioned to receive radiation after interacting with the object;

wherein the radiation source comprises:

a housing;

an acceleration chamber supported by the housing, the acceleration chamber having a peak acceleration energy of less than the lowest neutron production threshold of copper and greater than the lowest neutron production threshold of tungsten;

a source of charged particles supported by the housing to emit charged particles into the acceleration chamber;

a target supported by the housing downstream of the acceleration chamber;

wherein:

the target consists essentially of at least one isotope of copper; and

impact of the target material by the accelerated charged particles generates radiation, without producing neutrons.

40. The system of claim 39 , further comprising:

a collimator coupled to the housing; and

target shielding supported by the housing, partially around the target; and

wherein:

at least one of the collimator and the target shielding comprises copper.

41. The system of claim 39 , further comprising:

shielding over at least a portion of the housing;

wherein the shielding comprises copper.

42. The system of claim 39 , further comprising:

a conveyor to support the object for scanning and to convey the object through the system, the conveyor being configured to support and convey a cargo conveyance.

43. The system of claim 42 , wherein the cargo conveyance has a thickness of at least 5 feet (1.5 meters).

44. The system of claim 43 , wherein:

the cargo conveyance is a standard cargo conveyance.

45. The system of claim 39 , wherein:

the peak acceleration energy is greater than the lowest neutron production threshold of molybdenum.

46. The system of claim 45 , wherein:

the peak acceleration energy is greater than the lowest neutron production threshold of tantalum.

47. The system of claim 39 , wherein:

the peak acceleration energy is less than about 9.9 MeV and greater than about 6.1 MeV.

48. A radiation source, comprising:

a housing;

an acceleration chamber within the housing, the acceleration chamber having a peak acceleration energy greater than the neutron production threshold of tantalum, during use;

a source of charged particles supported by the housing to emit charged particles into the acceleration chamber; and

a target supported by the housing downstream of the acceleration chamber;

wherein:

impact of the target by the accelerated charged particles generates radiation; and

the target consists essentially of a low atomic number material comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

49. The radiation source of claim 48 , wherein the low atomic number material consists essentially of copper.

50. A radiation source comprising:

a housing;

an acceleration chamber within the housing, the acceleration chamber having a peak acceleration energy greater then the neutron production threshold of tantalum and less than about 13.1 MeV, during use;

a source of charged particles supported by the housing to emit charged particles into the acceleration chamber; and

a target supported by the housing downstream of the acceleration chamber, the target consisting essentially of aluminum;

wherein impact of the target by the accelerated charged particles generates radiation.

51. A radiation source comprising:

a housing;

an acceleration chamber within the housing, the acceleration chamber having a peak acceleration energy of at least 6.1 MeV and less than 9.9 MeV, during use;

a source of charged particles supported by the housing to emit charged particles into the acceleration chamber;

a target supported by the housing downstream of the acceleration chamber, wherein impact of the target by the accelerated charged particles generates radiation; and

a collimator coupled to the housing, proximate the target material, the collimator comprising copper.

52. The radiation source of claim 51 wherein the collimator comprises:

at least one first section consisting essentially of copper; and

at least one second section comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold less than the peak acceleration energy.

53. A radiation source comprising:

a housing comprising housing material;

an acceleration chamber within the housing, the acceleration chamber having a peak acceleration energy of at least 6.1 MeV and less than 9.9 Mev;

a source of charged particles supported by the housing to emit charged particles into the acceleration chamber;

a target supported by the housing downstream of the acceleration chamber, wherein impact of the target material by the accelerated charged particles generates radiation; and

target shielding surrounding at least a portion of the target, the target shielding comprising copper.

54. The radiation source of claim 53 , wherein the acceleration chamber has a peak acceleration energy greater than the lowest neutron production threshold of tungsten, during use.

55. The radiation source of claim 53 , wherein the target shielding comprises:

at least one first section consisting essentially of copper; and

at least one second section comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold less than the peak acceleration energy;

wherein the at least one first section is at least partially between the target and the at least one second section.

56. A method of generating radiation, comprising:

accelerating charged particles to a peak acceleration energy greater than the neutron production threshold of tungsten;

colliding the charged particles with a target;

generating radiation from the collision of the charged particles with the target; and

collimating the generated radiation by a collimator comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

57. The method of claim 56 , further comprising:

absorbing radiation generated by the target with target shielding comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

58. The method of claim 57 , further comprising:

absorbing radiation generated by the target by housing shielding comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

59. The method of claim 56 , further comprising:

absorbing radiation generated by the target by housing shielding comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy.

60. A method of generating radiation, comprising:

accelerating charged particles to a peak acceleration energy;

colliding the charged particles with a target;

generating radiation from the collision of the charged particles with the target, without generating neutrons; and

absorbing a portion of the generated radiation by housing shielding comprising:

at least one first section of material consisting essentially of at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy, proximate the target; and

at least one second section of material comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold less than the peak acceleration energy;

wherein the at least one first section is at least partially between the target and the at least one second section.

61. The method of claim 60 , comprising:

accelerating the charged particles to a peak acceleration energy greater than the neutron production threshold of tungsten.

62. The method of claim 60 , comprising:

absorbing at least a portion of the generated radiation by at least one first section comprising copper.

63. The method of claim 60 ,further comprising:

absorbing at least a portion of the generated radiation by target shielding comprising at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater then the peak acceleration energy, the target shielding being proximate to the target.

64. A method of examining contents of an object, comprising:

accelerating charged particles to a peak acceleration energy greater than the neutron production threshold of tantalum;

colliding the charged particles with a target consisting essentially of at least one isotope having a neutron production threshold greater than the peak acceleration energy;

generating radiation from the collision of the charged particles with the target, without generating neutrons;

scanning an object by the generated radiation; and

detecting radiation inteacting with the object.