Photovoltaic cells containing a novel electrode, as well as related systems, methods, modules, and components, are disclosed.
1. An article, comprising:
a first electrode;
a second electrode; and
a photoactive layer disposed between the first and second electrodes,
wherein the first electrode comprises first, second, and third layers, the first layer comprises a grid and an electrically insulating material, wherein the electrically insulating material is disposed in the spaces formed by the grid, and wherein the first layer has a root mean squared surface roughness of at most about 20 nm, the second layer is between the first and third layers and comprises an electrically conductive material, and the third layer is between the second layer and the photoactive layer and comprises a hole blocking material and an electrically conductive metal oxide,
wherein the electrically insulating material has a surface contacting the second layer, the grid has a surface contacting the second layer, and the surface of the electrically insulating material is substantially at the same level as the surface of the grid and the electrically insulating material does not cover the surface of the grid that contacts the second layer, and
the article is configured as a photovoltaic cell.
2. The article of claim 1 , wherein the grid comprises a metal or an alloy.
3. The article of claim 2 , wherein the grid comprises gold, silver, copper, aluminum, nickel, palladium, platinum, titanium, or an alloy thereof.
4. The article of claim 1 , wherein the electrically insulating material comprises an acrylate polymer, a urethane polymer, an epoxy polymer, or a combination thereof.
5. The article of claim 1 , wherein the electrically conductive material comprises metal nanoparticles or an electrically conductive polymer.
6. The article of claim 5 , wherein the metal nanoparticles have a shape of a sphere, tube, rod, or needle.
7. The article of claim 5 , wherein the electrically conductive polymer comprises a polythiophene.
8. The article of claim 1 , wherein the hole blocking material comprises a polyamine.
9. The article of claim 8 , wherein the polyamine comprises a polyethylenimine.
10. The article of claim 8 , wherein at least some molecules of the hole blocking material are cross-linked by a cross-linking agent.
11. The article of claim 10 , wherein the cross-linking agent comprises an epoxy-containing compound.
12. The article of claim 10 , wherein the cross-linking agent comprises glycerol triglycidyl ether or glycerol diglycidyl ether.
13. The article of claim 1 , wherein the electrically conductive metal oxide comprises indium tin oxide.
14. The article of claim 1 , wherein the first layer has a root mean squared surface roughness of at most about 5 nm.
15. The article of claim 1 , wherein the first layer has a maximum peak height of at most about 200 nm.
16. The article of claim 1 , wherein the first electrode has a light transmittance of at least about 70% during use of the article.
17. The article of claim 1 , wherein the first electrode has a sheet resistance of at most about 10 ohm/square.
18. An article, comprising:
a first electrode;
a second electrode; and
a photoactive layer disposed between the first and second electrodes,
wherein the first electrode comprises a first layer and a second layer, the first layer comprises a grid and an electrically insulating material, the first layer has a root mean squared surface roughness of at most about 20 nm, wherein the second layer is between the first layer and the photoactive layer, and the second layer comprises an electrically conductive material, the electrically insulating material has a surface contacting the second layer, a third layer between the second layer and the photoactive layer wherein the third layer comprises a hole blocking material and an electrically conductive metal oxide, the grid has a surface contacting the second layer, and the surface of the electrically insulating material is substantially at the same level as the surface of the grid, and the electrically insulating material does not cover the surface of the grid that contacts the second layer, and the article is configured as a photovoltaic cell.
19. The article of claim 18 , wherein the first layer has a root mean squared surface roughness of at most about 5 nm.