Bifunctional organic catalysts

1. A catalyst having the formula (2):

wherein:

each R 1 is independently selected from the group consisting of an optionally substituted alkyl group, an optionally substituted cycloalkyl group, an optionally substituted aryl group, an optionally substituted heteroaryl group, an optionally substituted aralkyl group and an optionally substituted alkaryl group;

EWG is an electron-withdrawing group selected from the group consisting of groups having the formulae —C(═X)NHR 2 , —C(═X)R 2 , —SO 2 R 2 and —C(═X)XR 2 , wherein X is selected from the group consisting of O and S, and wherein R 2 is selected from the group consisting of an optionally substituted alkyl group, an optionally substituted cycloalkyl group, an optionally substituted aryl group, an optionally substituted heteroaryl group, an optionally substituted aralkyl group and an optionally substituted alkaryl group;

R 3 , R 4 and R 5 are independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, an optionally substituted (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl group, an optionally substituted (C 3 -C 10 )cycloalkyl group, an optionally substituted (C 6 -C 10 )aryl group, an optionally substituted (C 4 -C 9 )heteroaryl group, an optionally substituted (C 7 -C 14 )aralkyl group, an optionally substituted (C 13 -C 20 )di-aryl-alkyl group and an optionally substituted (C 7 -C 14 )alkaryl group, or any two of R 3 , R 4 or R 5 on adjacent carbon atoms may together form a methylene chain having the formula —(CH 2 ) m —, wherein m is an integer of from 3 to 5, and wherein at least one of R 3 , R 4 and R 5 is not hydrogen; and

n is an integer of from 0 to 3.

2. A catalyst according to claim 1 , wherein each R 1 is independently selected from the group consisting of an optionally substituted (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl group, an optionally substituted (C 3 -C 10 )cycloalkyl group, an optionally substituted (C 6 -C 10 )aryl group, an optionally substituted (C 4 -C 9 )heteroaryl group, an optionally substituted (C 7 -C 14 )aralkyl group and an optionally substituted (C 7 -C 14 )alkaryl group.

3. A catalyst according to claim 1 , wherein EWG is selected from the group consisting of —C(═O)NHR 2 and —C(═S)NHR 2 , wherein R 2 is selected from the group consisting of an optionally substituted alkyl group, an optionally substituted cycloalkyl group, an optionally substituted aryl group, an optionally substituted heteroaryl group, an optionally substituted aralkyl group and an optionally substituted alkaryl group; or EWG is selected from the group consisting of —C(═O)NHR 2 and —C(═S)NHR 2 , wherein R 2 is selected from the group consisting of an optionally substituted (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl group, an optionally substituted (C 3 -C 10 )cycloalkyl group, an optionally substituted (C 6 -C 10 )aryl group, an optionally substituted (C 4 -C 9 )heteroaryl group, an optionally substituted (C 7 -C 14 )aralkyl group and an optionally substituted (C 7 -C 14 )alkaryl group.

4. A catalyst according to claim 1 , wherein EWG has the formula:

wherein:

X′ is selected from the group consisting of S and O;

R 19 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen and —C(═Z′)N(R 21 ) 2 , wherein Z′ is selected from the group consisting of S and O, and each R 21 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, an optionally substituted (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl group, an optionally substituted (C 3 -C 10 )cycloalkyl group, an optionally substituted (C 6 -C 10 )aryl group, an optionally substituted (C 4 -C 9 )heteroaryl group, an optionally substituted (C 7 -C 14 )aralkyl group and an optionally substituted (C 7 -C 14 )alkaryl group; and

each R 20 is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, an optionally substituted (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl group, an optionally substituted (C 3 -C 10 )cycloalkyl group, an optionally substituted (C 6 -C 10 )aryl group, an optionally substituted (C 4 -C 9 )heteroaryl group, an optionally substituted (C 7 -C 14 )aralkyl group and an optionally substituted (C 7 -C 14 )alkaryl group; or

EWG is:

5. A catalyst according to claim 1 , having the formula (3):

or having the formula (4);

wherein X is S or O.

6. A catalyst according to claim 5 , wherein at least one of R 3 and R 5 is selected from the group consisting of methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, phenyl, 4-methylphenyl, 4-methoxyphenyl, 2,5-dimethyl phenyl, benzyl, 4-methoxybenzyl, diphenylmethyl, iso-propyloxymethyl and tert-butyloxymethyl, or in the case where n is 0, R 3 and R 5 may together form a methylene chain having the formula —(CH 2 ) m —, wherein m is 3 or 4.

7. A catalyst according to claim 1 , wherein n is an integer from 0 to 2.

8. A catalyst according to claim 1 , having the formula (5) or (6):

with the proviso that R 3 is not hydrogen;

or having the formula (7) or (8):

with the proviso that R 5 is not hydrogen; or having the formula (9) or (10):

with the proviso that R 3 is not hydrogen;

or having the formula (11) or (12):

with the proviso that R 5 is not hydrogen;

or having the formula (13) or (14):

with the proviso that R 3 is not hydrogen;

or having formula (15) or (16):

with the proviso that R 5 is not hydrogen;

or having the formula (17), (18), (19) or (20):

with the provisos that R 3 is not hydrogen and R 5 is not hydrogen, or having the formula (21) or (22):

with the proviso that R 3 is not hydrogen;

or having the formula (23) or (24):

with the proviso that R 5 is not hydrogen;

or having the formula (25), (26), (27) or (28):

with the provisos that R 3 is not hydrogen and R 5 is not hydrogen; or having the formula (23) or (24) wherein X is S, R 1 is phenyl or 4-methoxyphenyl, R 2 is selected from the group consisting of 4-(trifluoromethylphenyl), 3,5-bis-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl and 4-nitrophenyl, and R 5 is selected from the group consisting of iso-propyl, tert-butyl, phenyl, benzyl and diphenylmethyl.

9. A catalyst according to claim 7 , wherein n is 0 or 1.

10. A catalyst according to claim 9 , wherein n is 0.