High voltage battery composed of anode limited electrochemical cells

1. An electrochemical storage device comprising:

a plurality of hybrid electrochemical cells connected electrically in series, wherein each cell comprises:

a composite negative anode electrode comprising an activated carbon active material and from 0.5 to 10 mass % of a hydrogen storage material;

a positive cathode electrode; and

an aqueous electrolyte,

wherein a charge storage capacity of the anode electrode is less than a charge storage capacity of the cathode electrode;

wherein the anode electrode is configured such that in operation water in the electrolyte locally electrolyzes to form hydrogen and OH − species at the anode electrode of at least one of the plurality of hybrid electrochemical cells when the charge storage capacity of the anode electrode is exceeded on charging the at least one cell;

wherein the device is a hybrid energy storage device;

wherein the cathode electrode in operation reversibly intercalates alkali metal cations;

wherein the anode electrode comprises a capacitive electrode which stores charge through a reversible nonfaradiac reaction of the alkali metal cations on a surface of the anode electrode or a pseudocapacitive electrode which undergoes a partial charge transfer surface interaction with the alkali metal cations on a surface of the anode electrode;

wherein the anode electrode charge storage capacity comprises the capacity available before the water begins electrolysis at an anode electrode/electrolyte interface: and

wherein:

the storage capacity of the anode electrode available before the water begins electrolysis at the anode electrode/electrolyte interface is 50-90% of the charge storage capacity of the cathode electrode;

a mass ratio of the anode electrode to the cathode electrode is less than 1; and

a product of a specific capacity of the anode electrode and a load of the anode electrode is less than a product of a specific capacity of the cathode electrode and a load of the cathode electrode.

2. The device of claim 1 , wherein the activated carbon active material activated carbon that has been modified to have more than 120 F/g in 1 M Na 2 SO 4 under anodic biasing conditions.

3. The device of claim 1 , wherein the anode electrode comprises from 1 to 2 mass percent of the hydrogen storage material.

4. The device of claim 1 , wherein:

a first cell of the plurality of hybrid electrochemical cells in the device comprises a lower charge storage capacity as manufactured than a second cell of the plurality of hybrid electrochemical cells in the device;

the first cell is configured to experience overcharge and undercharge conditions during discharging and charging; and

the device lacks a cell level voltage monitoring and a current control circuit.

5. The device of claim 1 , wherein the device comprises a plurality of strings of cells, each string of cells comprising the plurality of hybrid electrochemical cells connected in series without a cell level battery management system.

6. The device of claim 1 , wherein the hydrogen storage material is added only to the surface of the anode electrode.

7. The device of claim 1 , wherein the cathode electrode comprises a material having a formula A x M y O z , where A is one or more of Li, Na, K, Be, Mg, or Ca, where x is within a range of 0 to 1, before use and within a range of 0 to 10, during use; M comprises any one or more transition metals selected from Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cr, V, Ti, Cu, Zr, Nb, W or Mo, where y is within a range of 1 to 3, and z is within a range of 2 to 7, the anode electrode comprises activated carbon and the electrolyte comprises SO 4 2− , NO 3 − , ClO 4 − , PO 4 3− , CO 3 2− , Cl − , or OH − anions.

8. The device of claim 7 , wherein the material having a formula A x M y O z is a doped or undoped cubic spinel λ-MnO 2 -type material or a Na 0.44 MnO 2 tunnel structured orthorhombic material and the electrolyte comprises at least one of Na 2 SO 4 or Li 2 SO 4 solvated in the water.

9. The device of claim 1 , wherein the anode electrode is configured such that in operation:

the OH − species increase a pH proximal to the surface of the anode electrode and wherein the increase in pH lowers a voltage stability window of the electrolyte locally, thereby reducing or eliminating further hydrogen evolution; and

the hydrogen species formed on charging of the at least one cell combines with the OH − species upon discharging of the same at least one cell.

10. The device of claim 9 , wherein the anode electrode is configured such that in operation at least a portion of the hydrogen species formed on charging of the at least one cell is stored in, on, or at the anode electrode.