Methods and systems for polarization control

1. A method of operating a multi-stage electrochemical treatment system having a first stage with at least one electrochemical treatment device comprising a first cell stack, and a second stage with at least one electrochemical treatment device comprising a second cell stack, the first stage in fluid communication upstream of the second stage, the method comprising:

introducing a liquid to be treated to an inlet of the first stage;

measuring a conductivity, total dissolved solids concentration, temperature, and a flow rate of the liquid to be treated at the inlet to the first stage;

calculating a limiting current density for the first stage based in part on the total dissolved solids concentration of the liquid to be treated and the flow rate of the liquid to be treated and based on the measured conductivity of the liquid to be treated at the inlet to the first stage and the temperature of the liquid to be treated at the inlet to the first stage;

operating in the first stage at a first liquid flow velocity through the first stage and at a first current density across the first cell stack, the first current density below the limiting current density for the first stage;

removing a first amount of total dissolved solids from the liquid, in the first stage, to produce a partially-treated liquid;

withdrawing the partially-treated liquid from an outlet of the first stage;

introducing the partially-treated liquid to an inlet of the second stage;

calculating a limiting current density for the second stage based in part on a measured total dissolved solids concentration of the partially-treated liquid and a measured flow rate of the partially-treated liquid and based on the measured conductivity of the liquid to be treated at the inlet to the first stage, the temperature of the liquid to be treated at the inlet to the first stage, and the measured flow rate of the liquid to be treated at the inlet to the first stage;

operating in the second stage at a second liquid flow velocity through the second stage and at a second current density across the second cell stack, the second liquid flow velocity greater than the first liquid flow velocity and the second current density below the limiting current density for the second stage;

removing a second amount of total dissolved solids from the partially-treated liquid, in the second stage, the second amount of total dissolved solids being less than the first amount of total dissolved solids to produce a treated liquid;

withdrawing the treated liquid from an outlet of the second stage; and

passing the treated liquid through a polishing device to produce a polished treated liquid, the polishing device configured to remove a third amount of total dissolved solids from the treated liquid that is less than the second amount of total dissolved solids.

2. The method of claim 1 , wherein a total dissolved solids concentration of the liquid to be treated at the inlet of the first stage is greater than about 30,000 ppm.

3. The method of claim 2 , wherein a total dissolved solids concentration of the polished treated liquid is less than about 500 ppm.

4. The method of claim 1 , wherein a ratio of the limiting current density for the first stage to the first current density and a ratio of the limiting current density for the second stage to the second current density is at least 1.10.

5. The method of claim 1 , wherein the treated liquid is introduced to the polishing device at a liquid flow velocity that is equal to or greater than the second liquid flow velocity.

6. The method of claim 1 , further comprising removing boron from the treated liquid with the polishing device.

7. The method of claim 6 , further comprising adjusting a pH of the treated liquid to be passed through the polishing device to a pH of about 11.