Partially and fully surface-enabled transition metal ion-exchanging energy storage devices

1. A partially or fully surface-enabled, metal ion-exchanging battery device comprising (a) a cathode, (b) an anode, (c) a porous separator disposed between said cathode and said anode, and (d) an electrolyte in physical contact with said cathode and said anode, wherein said electrolyte comprises a metal ion salt and a metal ion that is exchanged between said cathode and said anode during an operation of said battery device and said metal ion or metal ion salt is selected from transition metals, wherein at least one of said cathode and said anode comprises therein a source of said metal ion prior to a first charge or a first discharge cycle of the battery device and at least the cathode comprises a functional material having a surface-borne metal ion-capturing functional group or a nanostructured material having a metal ion-storing surface in direct contact with said electrolyte to reversibly capture or store said metal ion during charge-discharge operations of said battery, wherein the functional material comprises nanographene selected from single-layer graphene sheets or multi-layer graphene platelets, wherein said transition metal is selected from scandium (Sc), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and combinations thereof.

2. The partially or fully surface-enabled, metal ion-exchanging battery device of claim 1 , wherein said electrolyte also includes a metal ion or metal ion salt selected from alkaline-earth metals consisting of beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), combinations thereof, and their combinations with lithium, and said electrolyte also includes a metal ion selected from lithium ion, an alkaline metal ion, and combinations thereof.

3. The battery device of claim 1 , wherein said transition metal is selected from titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), and combinations thereof.

4. The battery device of claim 1 , wherein the metal ion salt is an alkali metal, alkaline-earth metal, transition metal, aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), or bismuth (Bi), and said metal ion salt is dissolved in an organic solvent.

5. The battery device of claim 1 , wherein the metal ion salt is selected from a lithium salt, sodium salt, potassium salt, calcium salt, magnesium salt, zinc salt, titanium salt, transition metal salt, aluminum salt, lithium perchlorate (LiClO 4 ), sodium perchlorate (NaClO 4 ), potassium perchlorate (KClO 4 ), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF 6 ), sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF 6 ), potassium hexafluorophosphate (KPF 6 ), transition metal hexafluorophosphate, aluminum hexafluorophosphate (Al(PF 6 ) 3 ), lithium borofluoride (LiBF 4 ), sodium borofluoride (NaBF 4 ), potassium borofluoride (KBF 4 ), calcium borofluoride (Ca(BF 4 ) 2 ), aluminum borofluoride (Al(BF 4 ) 3 ), transition metal borofluoride, alkaline-earth metal borofluoride, lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF 6 ), alkali metal hexafluoroarsenide, transition metal hexafluoroarsenide, aluminum hexafluoroarsenides, lithium trifluoro-metasulfonate (LiCF 3 SO 3 ), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF 3 SO 2 ) 2 ), and combinations thereof.

6. The battery device of claim 1 , wherein said electrolyte comprises liquid electrolyte or gel electrolyte.

7. The battery device of claim 1 wherein said electrolyte is an aqueous electrolyte.

8. The battery device of claim 1 , wherein said electrolyte comprises a solvent selected from ethylene carbonate (EC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), methylethyl carbonate (MEC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), methyl butyrate (MB), ethyl propionate, methyl propionate, propylene carbonate (PC), γ-butyrolactone (γ-BL), acetonitrile (AN), ethyl acetate (EA), propyl formate (PF), methyl formate (MF), toluene, xylene, methyl acetate (MA), and combinations thereof.

9. The battery device of claim 1 , wherein at least one of said cathode and said anode comprises said functional material having a functional group that reversibly reacts with said metal ion of claim 1 , forms a redox pair with said metal ion, or forms a chemical complex with said metal ion.

10. The battery device of claim 1 , wherein both said cathode and said anode comprise said functional material having a functional group that reversibly reacts with a metal ion, forms a redox pair with a metal ion, or forms a chemical complex with a metal ion.

11. The battery device of claim 1 , wherein at least one of said cathode and said anode comprises a nanostructured functional material having a specific surface area from 100 m 2 /g to 1,500 m 2 /g to store or support metal ions or atoms thereon.

12. The battery device of claim 1 , wherein said metal ion source comprises a metal chip, metal foil, metal powder, surface stabilized metal particles, or a combination thereof.

13. The battery device of claim 1 wherein said functional material further comprises single-walled or multi-walled carbon nanotubes.

14. The battery device of claim 1 wherein at least one of said functional materials has a functional group selected from COOH, ═O, —NH 2 , —OR, or —COOR, where R is a hydrocarbon radical.

15. The battery device of claim 1 wherein said electrolyte further comprises lithium ions and/or said exchanging metal ion source further comprises a Li ion source.

16. The battery device of claim 1 wherein said electrolyte comprises an alkali metal salt-doped ionic liquid.

17. The battery device of claim 1 wherein said device provides an energy density of no less than 100 Wh/kg, based on the electrode weight, and a power density no lower than 10 Kw/kg, based on the electrode weight.

18. A partially or fully surface-enabled, metal ion-exchanging battery device comprising (a) a positive electrode (cathode), (b) a negative electrode (anode), (c) a porous separator disposed between said cathode and said anode, and (d) an electrolyte in physical contact with said cathode and said anode, wherein said electrolyte contains a transition metal ion that is exchanged between said cathode and said anode during an operation of said battery device; wherein at least one of said cathode and said anode contains therein a source of said metal ion prior to a first charge or a first discharge cycle of the battery device and at least the cathode comprises a functional material having a surface-borne metal ion-capturing functional group or a nanostructured material having a metal ion-storing surface in direct contact with said electrolyte to reversibly capture or store said metal ion during charge-discharge operations of said battery, wherein said nanostructured material comprises a nanostructured or porous disordered carbon material selected from a soft carbon, hard carbon, polymeric carbon or carbonized resin, mesophase carbon, coke, carbonized pitch, carbon black, activated carbon, partially graphitized carbon, and combinations thereof, wherein said transition metal ion is selected from scandium (Sc), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and combinations thereof.

19. The battery device of claim 18 wherein said disordered carbon material is formed of two phases with a first phase being graphite crystals or stacks of graphene planes and a second phase being non-crystalline carbon and wherein said first phase is dispersed in said second phase or bonded by said second phase and said disordered carbon material contains less than 90% by volume of graphite crystals.

20. A partially or fully surface-enabled, metal ion-exchanging battery device comprising (a) a positive electrode (cathode), (b) a negative electrode (anode), (c) a porous separator disposed between said cathode and said anode, and (d) an electrolyte in physical contact with said cathode and said anode, wherein said electrolyte contains a transition metal ion that is exchanged between said cathode and said anode during an operation of said battery device; wherein at least one of said cathode and said anode comprises therein a source of said metal ion prior to a first charge or a first discharge cycle of the battery device and at least the cathode comprises a functional material having a surface-borne metal ion-capturing functional group or a nanostructured material having a metal ion-storing surface in direct contact with said electrolyte to reversibly capture or store said metal ion during charge-discharge operations of said battery device, wherein said functional material is selected from the group consisting of poly(2,5-dihydroxy-1,4-benzoquinone-3,6-methylene), Li x C 6 O 6 , wherein 1≤x≤3, Li 2 (C 6 H 2 O 4 ), Li 2 C 8 H 4 O 4 (Li terephthalate), Li 2 C 6 H 4 O 4 (Li trans-trans-muconate), 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylicacid-dianhydride (PTCDA) sulfide polymer, PTCDA, 1,4,5,8-naphthalene-tetracarboxylicacid-dianhydride (NTCDA), benzene-1,2,4,5-tetracarboxylic dianhydride, 1,4,5,8-tetrahydroxy anthraquinon, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone, and combinations thereof, and wherein said functional material is optionally combined with or optionally supported by a nanostructured material selected from nanographene, carbon nanotube, disordered carbon, nanographite, metal nanowire, conductive nanowire, carbon nanofiber, or polymeric nanofiber, wherein said transition metal ion is selected from scandium (Sc), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and combinations thereof.

21. The battery device of claim 1 wherein said device provides a power density no lower than 10 Kw/kg, based on the electrode weight.