Dual-mechanism thickening agents for hydraulic fracturing fluids

1. A dual-mechanism thickening agent, comprising a star macromolecule that forms a homogeneous gel when dissolved in water at a concentration of at least 0.05 wt. %, wherein the gel exhibits:

a) a dynamic viscosity of at least about 20,000 cP;

b) a shear-thinning value of at least 10;

c) an increase in dynamic viscosity of at least about 5,000 cP in a 0.2 wt. % Borax aqueous solution, according to Borate-Crosslinker Thickening Test; or

d) combinations thereof; and

wherein the star macromolecule comprises:

i) a molecular weight of between about 150,000 g/mol and about 5,000,000 g/mol;

ii) a core and at least three-types of arms; and

iii) wherein at least one of the three-types of arms comprises a hydrophilic polymeric or copolymeric segment proximal to the core and comprising repeat units of polymerized hydrophilic monomeric residues; and a hydroxyl-containing polymeric or copolymeric segment distal to the core comprising one or more polymerized hydroxyl-containing residues.

2. The dual-mechanism thickening agent of claim 1 , wherein the star macromolecule has an increase in dynamic viscosity in the range of between about 5,000 cP to about 30,000 cP, or an increase in dynamic viscosity of at least about 12%, in a 0.2 wt. % Borax aqueous solution, according to the Borate-Crosslinker Thickening Test, relative to the dynamic viscosity of a homogeneous gel of the star macromolecule with 0.0 wt. % Borax aqueous solution.

3. The dual-mechanism thickening agent of claim 1 , wherein the star macromolecule has a viscosity of less than about 5,000 cP at a shear rate of 4 sec −1 .

4. The dual-mechanism thickening agent of claim 1 , wherein the star macromolecule has a polydispersity index (“PDI”) between about 1.0 to about 8.0.

5. The dual-mechanism thickening agent of claim 1 , wherein the star macromolecule has a pH-induced break value of at least about 50%.

6. The dual-mechanism thickening agent of claim 1 , wherein the star macromolecule has an emulsion value of greater than about 12 hours.

7. The dual-mechanism thickening agent of claim 1 , wherein the star macromolecule is a water-soluble mikto star macromolecule.

8. The dual-mechanism thickening agent of claim 1 , wherein the core comprises a hydrophobic crosslinked polymeric segment.

9. The dual-mechanism thickening agent of claim 1 , wherein the star macromolecule is prepared by one or more star macromolecule processes, comprising: one-pot processes, arm first processes, Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization (“ATRP”) processes, Controlled Radical Polymerization (“CRP”) processes, Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain Transfer (“RAFT”) processes, 2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (“TEMPO”) processes, Nitroxide processes, Living Radical Polymerization (“LRP”) processes, anionic polymerization processes, cationic polymerization processes, or combinations thereof.

10. The dual-mechanism thickening agent of claim 1 , wherein the star macromolecule is a gel-forming star macromolecule.

11. A composition comprising the dual-mechanism thickening agent of claim 1 .

12. The composition of claim 11 , wherein the composition comprises at least about 0.05 wt. % of the star macromolecule.

13. The composition of claim 11 , wherein the composition is a fracturing fluid thickening additive, a drilling well fluid thickening additive, a gelling agent, or an additive to improve oil extraction from oil sands.

14. The composition of claim 11 , wherein the composition is a rheology-modifying composition having a shear-thinning value of at least 6.

15. The composition of claim 11 , wherein the composition is a cosmetic composition, a personal care composition, a cleaning composition, an adhesive composition, a medical or pharmaceutical composition, a paper application composition, an agricultural composition, a coating composition, a lubricant composition, an antifoaming composition, an antifreeze composition, a corrosion inhibitor composition, a detergent composition, an ink composition, or a combination thereof.

16. The composition of claim 11 , wherein the composition further comprises one or more boric acid additives or borate-type additives.

17. A fracturing fluid composition, comprising at least about 0.05 wt. % of a dual-mechanism thickening agent to improve water flooding during enhanced oil recovery, wherein the dual-mechanism thickening agent is a star macromolecule comprising:

a) a molecular weight of greater than about 100,000 g/mol;

b) a core having a hydrophobic crosslinked polymeric segment; and

c) a plurality of arms comprising at least three types of arms, wherein:

i) a first-arm-type extends beyond a second-arm-type, and said first-arm-type has a hydrophobic segment on its distal end; and

ii) a third-arm-type extends beyond a second-arm-type, and said third-arm type has a hydroxyl-containing segment on its distal end and a hydrophilic segment proximal to the core;

wherein:

A) the composition has a shear-thinning value of at least 6; and

B) the star macromolecule, when dissolved in:

1) water at a concentration of at least 0.05 wt. %, forms a clear, homogeneous gel, said gel having a dynamic viscosity of at least about 20,000 cP; and

2) a 0.2 wt. % Borax aqueous solution, forms a gel, said gel having an increase in dynamic viscosity of at least about 5,000 cP, or an increase in dynamic viscosity of at least 12%, according to Borate-Crosslinker Thickening Test, relative to the dynamic viscosity of a homogeneous gel of the star macromolecule with 0.0 wt. % Borax aqueous solution.

18. The fracturing fluid composition of claim 17 further comprises one or more boric acid additives and borate-type additives.

19. The fracturing fluid composition of claim 17 is a fracturing fluid thickening additive, a drilling well fluid thickening additive, a gelling agent, or an additive to improve oil extraction from oil sands.

20. The fracturing fluid composition of claim 17 , wherein the star macromolecule is prepared by one or more star macromolecule processes, comprising: one-pot processes, arm first processes, Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization (“ATRP”) processes, Controlled Radical Polymerization (“CRP”) processes, Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain Transfer (“RAFT”) processes, 2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (“TEMPO”) processes, Nitroxide processes, Living Radical Polymerization (“LRP”) processes, anionic polymerization processes, cationic polymerization processes, or combinations thereof.