Frequency modulation spectroscopy with localized fluorescence
A frequency-modulated spectrometry (FMS) output is used to stabilize an atomic clock by serving as an error signal to regulate the clock's oscillator frequency. Rubidium 87 atoms are localized within a hermetically sealed cell using an optical (e.g., magneto-optical) trap. The oscillator output is modulated by a sinusoidal radio frequency signal and the modulated signal is then frequency doubled to provide a modulated 788 nm probe signal. The probe signal excites the atoms, so they emit 775.8 nm fluorescence. A spectral filter is used to block 788 nm scatter from reaching a photodetector, but also blocks 775.8 nm fluorescence with an angle of incidence larger than 8° relative to a perpendicular to the spectral filter. The localized atoms lie within a conical volume defined by the 8° effective angle of incidence so an FMS output with a high signal-to-noise ratio is obtained.
1. A frequency-modulation spectroscopy process comprising:
forming an optical trap to localize molecular entities in a subregion of a cell, the subregion having a volume that is less than 1/10 of an internal volume of the cell;
frequency converting an optical source signal to provide a first probe beam having a first probe wavelength, the frequency conversion including frequency modulating the optical source signal using a radio-frequency signal;
probing the molecular entities using at least the first probe beam so that the molecular entities emit fluorescence having a first fluorescence wavelength different from the first probe wavelength;
spectrally filtering the fluorescence using a spectral filter, the spectral filter being characterized by an effective angle of incidence on the spectral filter within which the spectral filter can effectively block the first probe wavelength and transmit the first fluorescence wavelength, the filter being less effective at blocking the first probe wavelength or transmitting the first fluorescence wavelength at angles larger than the effective angle of incidence, at least half of the molecular entities that emit the fluorescence being within a conical volume defined by the effective angle of incidence;
detecting the spectrally filtered fluorescence transmitted by the spectral filter to provide a fluorescence detection signal; and
demodulating the fluorescence detection signal so as to provide a frequency-modulation spectroscopy output signal.
2. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy process of claim 1 wherein, in the absence of the optical trap, the molecular entities would be distributed throughout the cell so that fewer than half of the molecular entities would be within the conical volume defined by the effective angle of incidence.
3. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy process of claim 1 wherein the molecular entities are rubidium 87 atoms, the first probe wavelength is 778±.5nanometers, the first fluorescence wavelength is 775.8±.5 nanometers, and the optical trap is a magneto-optical trap or an all-optical trap.
4. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy process of claim 1 wherein the detecting results in the fluorescence detection signal corresponding to a time- varying magnitude of a detected fluorescence.
5. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy process of claim 1 wherein:
the frequency modulating includes modulating the source signal with a sinusoidal signal having a first radio-frequency below one megahertz so as to provide a modulated optical source signal; and
the demodulating includes mixing the fluorescence detection signal with a sinusoidal signal having the first radio-frequency.
6. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy process of claim 5 wherein the frequency conversion includes frequency doubling the modulated source signal.
7. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy process of claim 1 wherein the molecular entities are excited by the first probe beam and a retro-reflection of the first probe beam.
8. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy process of claim 1 wherein a first percentage of the molecular entities emits the fluorescence of the first fluorescence wavelength and a second percentage of the molecular entities emits an additional fluorescence of a second fluorescence wavelength, the second percentage being less than half the first percentage, an absolute value of a difference between the second fluorescence wavelength and the first probe wavelength being more than twice an absolute value of a difference between the first fluorescence wavelength and the first probe wavelength.
9. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy process of claim 8 wherein the detecting includes detecting the fluorescence of the first fluorescence wavelength and the additional fluorescence of the second fluorescence wavelengths, the additional fluorescence with the second fluorescence wavelength being transmitted by the spectral filter.
10. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy process of claim 9 wherein the detecting includes detecting the fluorescence of the first fluorescence wavelength but not the additional fluorescence of the second fluorescence wavelength, the additional fluorescence of the second fluorescence wavelength being blocked by the spectral filter.
11. A frequency-modulation spectroscopy system comprising:
an optical trap generator for forming an optical trap to localize molecular entities in a subregion of a cell, the subregion having a volume that is less than 1/10 of an internal volume of the cell;
a frequency converter for frequency converting an optical source signal to provide a first probe beam having a first probe wavelength, the frequency conversion including frequency modulating the optical source signal using a radio-frequency signal, at least the first probe beam probing the molecular entities so that the molecular entities emit fluorescence having a first fluorescence wavelength different from the first probe wavelength;
a spectral filter for spectrally filtering the fluorescence, the spectral filter being characterized by an effective angle of incidence on the spectral filter within which the spectral filter can effectively block the first probe wavelength and transmit the first fluorescence wavelength, the filter being less effective at blocking the first probe wavelength or transmitting the first fluorescence wavelength at angles larger than the effective angle of incidence, at least half of the molecular entities that emit the fluorescence being within a conical volume defined by the effective angle of incidence;
a fluorescence detector for detecting the spectrally filtered fluorescence transmitted by the spectral filter to provide a fluorescence detection signal; and
a demodulator for demodulating the fluorescence detection signal so as to provide a frequency-modulation spectroscopy output signal.
12. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy system of claim 11 wherein, in the absence of the optical trap, the molecular entities would be distributed throughout the cell so that fewer than half of the molecular entities would be within the conical volume defined by the effective angle of incidence.
13. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy system of claim 11 wherein the molecular entities are rubidium 87 atoms, the first probe wavelength is 778±.5nanometers, the first fluorescence wavelength is 775.8±.5 nanometers, and the optical trap is a magneto-optical trap or an all-optical trap.
14. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy system of claim 11 wherein the detecting results in the fluorescence detection signal corresponding to a time-varying magnitude of a detected fluorescence.
15. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy system of claim 11 wherein:
the frequency modulating includes modulating the optical source signal with a sinusoidal signal having a first radio-frequency below one megahertz so as to provide a modulated source signal; and
the demodulating includes mixing the fluorescence detection signal with a sinusoidal signal having the first radio-frequency.
16. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy system of claim 15 wherein the frequency conversion includes frequency doubling the modulated source signal.
17. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy system of claim 11 wherein the molecular entities are excited by the first probe beam and a retro-reflection of the first probe beam.
18. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy system of claim 11 wherein a first percentage of the molecular entities emits the fluorescence of the first fluorescence wavelength and a second percentage of the molecular entities emits an additional fluorescence of a second fluorescence wavelength, the second percentage being less than half the first percentage, an absolute value of a difference between the second fluorescence wavelength and the first probe wavelength being more than twice an absolute value of a difference between the first fluorescence wavelength and the first probe wavelength.
19. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy system of claim 18 wherein the detecting includes detecting the fluorescence of the first fluorescence wavelength and the additional fluorescence of the second fluorescence wavelengths, the additional fluorescence with the second fluorescence wavelength being transmitted by the spectral filter.
20. The frequency-modulation spectroscopy system of claim 19 wherein the detecting includes detecting the fluorescence of the first fluorescence wavelength but not the additional fluorescence of the second fluorescence wavelength, the additional fluorescence of the second fluorescence wavelength being blocked by the spectral filter.