Photochemical tissue bonding

1. A method for adhering tissue, comprising: contacting a tissue, a tissue substitute, and at least one photosensitizer agent to form a tissue-photosensitizer complex; and applying electromagnetic energy to the tissue-photosensitizer complex in a manner effective to create covalent crosslinks between the tissue and tissue substitute, wherein the tissue or tissue substitute is not contacted with an adhesive comprising an exogenous protein or peptide which is crosslinked by the application of electromagnetic energy, thereby creating a seal having a tensile strength between the tissue and the tissue substitute.

2. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tissue substitute comprises any member of the group consisting of silicon, collagen, fibronectin, glycosaminoglycan, polyurethane, polyvinyl and nylon.

3. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tissue substitute is comprised of collagen.

4. The method of claim 3 , wherein the collagen is in a gel.

5. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tissue substitute is cellular.

6. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tissue substitute is impregnated with the photosensitizer agent prior to contacting the first tissue.

7. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tissue substitute is an engineered tissue implant.

8. The method of claim 1 , wherein the contacting steps occurs ex vivo.

9. The method of claim 1 , wherein the contacting steps occur in vivo in a subject.

10. The method of claim 9 , wherein the subject is a human.

11. The method of claim 9 , wherein the tissue substitute is repopulated with cells from the subject after creating the tissue seal.

12. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tissue is selected from the group consisting of cardiovascular, neurological, gastrointestinal, renal, urological, oral, respiratory, otolaryngological, dermatological, gynecological, genital and connective tissue.

13. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tissue is skin.

14. The method of claim 1 , wherein the at least one photosensitizer agent is Rose Bengal.

15. The method of claim 1 , wherein the at least one photosensitizer agent is riboflavin-5-phosphate.

16. The method of claim 1 , wherein the application of electromagnetic energy to the tissue-photosensitizer complex occurs without more than a 15° C. rise in temperature.

17. The method of claim 1 , wherein the application of electromagnetic energy to the tissue-photosensitizer complex occurs without more than a 10° C. rise in temperature.

18. The method of claim 1 , wherein the application of electromagnetic energy to the tissue-photosensitizer complex occurs without more than a 3° C. rise in temperature.

19. The method of claim 1 , wherein the electromagnetic energy applied is less than 2000 J/cm 2 .

20. The method of claim 1 , wherein the electromagnetic energy is applied at an irradiance less than 1.5 W/cm 2 .

21. The method of claim 1 , wherein the electromagnetic energy is applied at an irradiance of about 0.60 W/cm 2 .

22. The method of claim 1 , wherein the electromagnetic energy has a wavelength of at least 488 nm and is applied at an irradiance less than 3.5 W/cm 2 .

23. The method of claim 1 , wherein the electromagnetic energy is applied at an irradiance of about 0.25 W/cm 2 .

24. The method of claim 1 , wherein the electromagnetic energy applied is about 50 J/cm 2 .

25. The method of claim 1 , wherein the electromagnetic energy applied is about 100 J/cm 2 .

26. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tensile strength between the first tissue and the tissue substitute is 0.15 N/cm 2 .

27. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tensile strength between the first tissue and the tissue substitute is 0.13 N/cm 2 .

28. The method of claim 1 , wherein the step of applying electromagnetic energy bonds the tissue to the tissue substitute without producing substantial thermal damage.