In vivo measurement of trace elements in bone by x-ray fluorescence
Methods for in vivo measurement of lead or other trace elements in bone by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) without independent measurement of underlying tissue thickness are disclosed. In one method, the lead concentration is calculated based on the intensity of a first characteristic fluoresced peak and a function having as an argument the intensity ratio of first and second characteristic fluoresced peaks, with at least one parameter of the function being empirically determined by measurements of calibration phantoms having differing thicknesses of tissue surrogate material. In another method, the lead concentration is measured by estimating tissue thickness based on the intensity of the Compton scattering peak, or ratio of Compton/Rayleigh intensities, and the intensity of a characteristic fluoresced x-ray peak corrected for attenuation by tissue of the estimated thickness. Also disclosed is a method for determining the calcium concentration and density of bone based on XRF spectrum data.
1. A method of in vivo measurement of the concentration of a specified trace element in bone, comprising steps of:
irradiating a portion of a bone with x-rays having energies suitable for causing the trace element to fluoresce, the irradiated portion of the bone being covered by overlying tissue;
measuring intensities of first and second fluoresced x-ray peaks characteristic of the trace element; and
calculating the concentration of the trace element based on the intensity of a selected one of the first and second fluoresced x-ray peaks and a function having as an argument the intensity ratio of the intensities of the first and second fluoresced x-ray peaks, at least one parameter of the function being empirically determined by measurement of samples having different thicknesses of overlying tissue or a surrogate thereof.
2. The method of claim 1 , wherein the trace element is lead.
3. The method of claim 1 , wherein the trace element is strontium.
4. The method of claim 1 , wherein the concentration of the trace element is calculated according to the equation:
f
=
1
C
el
{
I
(
F
1
,
el
)
[
I
(
F
1
,
el
)
I
(
F
2
,
el
)
]
c
}
i
n
vivo
where C el is an empirically determined concentration parameter for the specified trace element, c is an empirically determined exponent, and F 1,el and F 2,el are the first and second characteristic fluoresced x-rays for the specified element.
5. The method of claim 4 , wherein the trace element is lead, and F 1,el and F 2,el are the L β and L α x-rays of lead, respectively.
6. The method of claim 1 , wherein the step of irradiating the bone comprises using an x-ray tube to generate x-rays.
7. The method of claim 6 , wherein the step of irradiating the bone further comprises filtering the x-rays generated by the x-ray tube to produce a substantially monoenergetic beam of x-rays.
8. The method of claim 1 , wherein the calculating step is performed concurrently with the irradiating and measuring steps.
9. The method of claim 8 , wherein the calculating step is performed repeatedly, and the irradiation step is terminated when the calculated concentration meets a specified criterion.
10. A method of in vivo measurement of the concentration of a specified trace element in bone, comprising steps of:
irradiating a portion of a bone with x-rays having energies suitable for causing the trace element to fluoresce, the irradiated portion of the bone being covered by tissue;
measuring intensities of a characteristic fluoresced x-ray peak characteristic of the trace element and a Compton scattering peak resulting from the inelastic scattering of x-rays producing the fluoresced x-ray peak;
estimating the overlying tissue thickness based on an empirically predetermined relationship between tissue thickness and the Compton scattering peak intensity; and
calculating the concentration of the trace element based on the estimated tissue thickness and the fluoresced x-ray peak intensity.
11. The method of claim 10 , wherein the trace element is lead, and the fluoresced x-ray is the L β peak of lead.
12. The method of claim 10 , wherein the trace element is strontium, and the fluoresced x-ray is the K β peak of strontium.
13. The method of claim 10 , wherein:
the irradiating, measuring, estimating and calculating steps are performed concurrently; and
the calculating step is performed repeatedly, and the irradiation step is terminated when the calculated concentration meets a specified criterion.
14. A method of in vivo measurement of the concentration of a specified trace element in bone, comprising steps of:
irradiating a portion of a bone with x-rays having energies suitable for causing the trace element to fluoresce, the irradiated portion of the bone being covered by tissue having a thickness;
measuring an intensity of a fluoresced x-ray peak characteristic of the trace element;
measuring intensities of a Compton scattering peak and a Rayleigh scattering peak respectively resulting from the inelastic and elastic scattering of x-rays producing the fluoresced emission peak;
estimating the tissue thickness based on an empirically determined relationship between tissue thickness and the ratio of intensities of the Compton to Rayleigh scattering peak intensities; and
calculating the concentration of the specified trace element based on the determined tissue thickness and the fluoresced x-ray peak intensity.
15. A method of in vivo measurement of bone calcium concentration/density, comprising steps of:
irradiating a portion of a bone with x-rays having energies suitable for causing the trace element to fluoresce, the irradiated portion of the bone being covered by tissue;
measuring intensities of a Compton scattering peak and a Rayleigh scattering peak respectively resulting from the inelastic and elastic scattering of radiation producing the fluoresced emission peak;
estimating the tissue thickness based on an empirically determined relationship between tissue thickness and the ratio of intensities of the Compton to Rayleigh scattering peak intensities;
determining the portions of the Compton and Rayleigh scattering peak intensities attributable to bone by subtracting the expected Compton and Rayleigh scattering peak intensities produced by tissue of the estimated thickness; and
determining the density and calcium concentration of the bone based on the bone-attributable portion of the Compton and Rayleigh scattering peak intensities.