Stable lithium niobate waveguides, and methods of making and using same
The invention provides stable lithium niobate waveguides, and systems and methods for making same. In accordance with one aspect of the invention, a waveguide includes a lithium niobate substrate having an upper surface; and a soft proton-exchanged layer embedded within the substrate, the soft proton-exchanged layer formed by exposing the lithium niobate substrate to a proton exchange solution including a proton exchange acid and a lithium salt of the proton exchange acid at a temperature of less than an atmospheric boiling point of the solution, followed by annealing the lithium niobate substrate under a vapor pressure of water preselected to inhibit protons in the substrate from forming water and evaporating from the upper surface of the substrate. The preselected water vapor pressure may be between 0.1 atm and about 0.9 atm, for example, between about 0.4 atm and about 0.6 atm, in one embodiment about 0.47 atm.
1. A waveguide, comprising:
a lithium niobate substrate having an upper surface; and
a soft proton-exchanged layer embedded within the substrate,
the soft proton-exchanged layer formed by exposing the lithium niobate substrate to a proton exchange solution including a proton exchange acid and a lithium salt of the proton exchange acid at a temperature of less than an atmospheric boiling point of the solution, followed by annealing the lithium niobate substrate under a vapor pressure of water preselected to inhibit protons in the substrate from forming water and evaporating from the upper surface of the substrate, and
further comprising an overlayer comprising lithium niobate, the overlayer embedded between the upper surface of the lithium niobate substrate and the soft proton-exchanged layer,
wherein the overlayer comprises a substantially defect free region extending between about 10 nm below the upper surface of the substrate and the soft proton-exchanged layer.
2. The waveguide of claim 1 , wherein the soft proton-exchanged layer consists essentially of lithium niobate and hydrogen niobate.
3. The waveguide of claim 1 , said preselected water vapor pressure being between about 0.1 atm and about 0.9 atm.
4. The waveguide of claim 1 , said preselected water vapor pressure being between about 0.4 atm and about 0.6 atm.
5. The waveguide of claim 1 , wherein the proton exchange acid is benzoic acid, the lithium salt of the proton exchange acid is lithium benzoate, and the temperature is between about 122° C. and 250° C.
6. The waveguide of claim 1 , wherein the overlayer inhibits substantially all transport of protons from the soft proton-exchanged layer to the upper surface of the substrate.
7. The waveguide of claim 1 , wherein the overlayer consists essentially of lithium niobate.
8. The waveguide of claim 1 , wherein the overlayer is formed by exposing the annealed soft proton-exchanged layer to a reverse proton-exchange solution, the reverse proton-exchange solution comprising a lithium salt.
9. A method of making a waveguide, the method comprising:
providing a lithium niobate substrate having an upper surface;
forming a soft proton-exchanged layer comprising hydrogen niobate by exposing the upper surface of the substrate to a soft proton-exchange solution, the soft proton-exchange solution comprising a proton exchange acid and a lithium salt of the proton exchange acid at a temperature of less than an atmospheric boiling point of the solution; and
annealing the soft proton-exchanged layer under a vapor pressure of water preselected to inhibit protons in the hydrogen niobate from forming water and evaporating from the upper surface of the substrate.
10. The method of claim 9 , wherein the soft proton-exchange solution comprises about 2% to about 6% lithium benzoate and about 98% to about 94% benzoic acid.
11. The waveguide of claim 10 , wherein the temperature is between about 122° C. and 250° C.
12. The method of claim 9 , wherein the preselected vapor pressure of the water is between about 0.4 atm and about 0.6 atm.
13. The method of claim 9 , wherein the preselected vapor pressure of the water is about 0.47 atm.
14. The method of claim 9 , further comprising forming a protective lithium niobate overlayer over the annealed soft proton-exchanged layer by exposing the annealed soft proton-exchanged layer to a reverse proton-exchange solution, the reverse proton-exchange solution comprising a lithium salt.
15. The method of claim 14 , further comprising etching the upper surface of the substrate after forming the protective lithium niobate overlayer.
16. The method of claim 15 , wherein said etching comprises exposing the upper surface of the substrate to hydrofluoric acid.
17. A method of using a waveguide, the method comprising:
providing a waveguide, the waveguide comprising:
a lithium niobate substrate having an upper surface;
a soft proton-exchanged layer formed by exposing the lithium niobate substrate to a proton exchange solution including a proton exchange acid and a lithium salt of the proton exchange acid at a temperature of less than an atmospheric boiling point of the solution, followed by annealing the lithium niobate substrate under a vapor pressure of water preselected to inhibit protons in the substrate from forming water and evaporating from the upper surface of the substrate; and
an overlayer comprising lithium niobate, the overlayer embedded between the upper surface of the lithium niobate substrate and the soft proton-exchanged layer, the overlayer inhibiting substantially all transport of protons from the soft proton-exchanged layer to the upper surface of the substrate; and
operating the waveguide for greater than 100 days with substantially no degradation in performance and without the use of drift-compensation circuitry.
18. The method of claim 17 , further comprising operating the waveguide for greater than one year with substantially no degradation in performance and without the use of drift-compensation circuitry.