Method and apparatus for the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide

1. An apparatus for the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to formate, comprising:

a container;

a membrane, the membrane positioned within the container, the membrane dividing the container into a catholyte compartment and an anolyte compartment;

an anode, the anode comprising:

a titanium substrate; and

a metal oxide catalyst, the metal oxide catalyst comprising:

tantalum oxide deposited onto the substrate; and

iridium oxide deposited onto the tantalum oxide, the anode positioned at least partially within the anolyte compartment;

a cathode-and-pad combination, the cathode-and-pad combination comprising:

a porous cathode, the porous cathode comprising:

a porous substrate; and

a coating, the coating selected from the group consisting of:

(I) tin; and

 zinc, the zinc comprising between about three weight percent and about six weight percent of the coating; and

(II) tin, the tin deposited onto the substrate, the tin comprising tin deposits having a grain size of between 0.5 microns and five microns, the tin deposits substantially covering the catholyte compartment side surface of the substrate, the tin deposited by a process comprising:

 (a) immersing the porous substrate into a solution comprising:

 stannous chloride dihydrate;

 at least one complexing agent selected from the group consisting of:

 (i) tetrapotassium pyrophosphate; and

 (ii) glycine; and

 (iii) combinations thereof; and

 a non-ionic surfactant; and

 (b) during step (a):

 (i) maintaining the solution at a temperature of between 45 and 70 deg. C; and

 (ii) applying a cathodic current density of 1.5 to 2.5 mA/cm 2 for between 0.5 and two hours; and

a porous, nonconductive pad, the pad positioned adjacent to the membrane side of the cathode, the cathode-and-pad combination and the membrane at least partially defining the catholyte compartment;

a gas compartment, the gas compartment in fluid communication with the cathode; and

a voltage source, the voltage source in electrical communication with the anode and with the cathode, the voltage source configured to impress a DC voltage across the anode and the cathode.

2. A process for reducing carbon dioxide, comprising:

(a) introducing an anolyte into an anolyte compartment of an electrochemical reactor, the anolyte compartment at least partially containing an anode;

(b) introducing a catholyte into a catholyte compartment of the electrochemical reactor, the catholyte compartment separated from the anolyte compartment by a membrane, the catholyte compartment further separated from a gas compartment by a cathode-and-pad combination, the cathode-and-pad combination comprising:

a porous cathode; and

a porous, nonconductive pad, the pad positioned adjacent to the membrane side of the cathode, the cathode-and-pad combination and the membrane at least partially defining the catholyte compartment;

(c) introducing carbon dioxide gas into the gas compartment;

(d) introducing carbon dioxide gas from the gas compartment into the cathode;

(e) introducing the carbon dioxide gas from the cathode into the catholyte; and

(f) impressing a DC voltage across the anode and the cathode.

3. The process of claim 2 , wherein the catholyte comprises 2M potassium chloride.

4. The process of claim 2 , wherein:

the anolyte comprises a solution selected from the group consisting of:

(i) 1M sodium hydroxide; and

(ii) 0.5M sulfuric acid.

5. The process of claim 2 , further including the step of:

(a) introducing at least a portion of the catholyte into the porous, nonconductive pad.

6. The process of claim 2 , the cathode comprising:

a porous substrate; and

a coating, the coating comprising:

tin; and

zinc, the zinc comprising between about three weight percent and about six weight percent of the coating, wherein the carbon dioxide is reduced to formate.

7. The process of claim 2 , the cathode comprising:

a porous substrate; and

tin, the tin deposited onto the substrate, the tin comprising tin deposits having a grain size of between 0.5 microns and five microns.

8. The process of claim 2 , the cathode manufactured by a process comprising the steps of:

(a) immersing a porous substrate into a solution comprising:

a tin salt;

at least one complexing agent; and

a non-ionic surfactant; and

(b) during step (a):

(i) maintaining the solution at a temperature of between 45 and 70 deg. C; and

(ii) applying a cathodic current density of 1.5 to 2.5 mA/cm 2 for between 0.5 and two hours.

9. The process of claim 8 , wherein:

the tin salt comprises stannous chloride dihydrate; and

the at least one complexing agent is selected from the group consisting of:

(i) tetrapotassium pyrophosphate; and

(ii) glycine; and

(iii) combinations thereof.

10. The process of claim 2 , the anode comprising:

a titanium substrate; and

a metal oxide catalyst, the metal oxide catalyst comprising:

tantalum oxide deposited onto the substrate; and

iridium oxide deposited onto the tantalum oxide, wherein the carbon dioxide is reduced to formate, wherein the carbon dioxide is reduced to formate.

11. The process of claim 10 , the cathode selected from the group consisting of:

(i) a manufacture, comprising:

a porous substrate; and

a coating, the coating comprising:

tin; and

zinc, the zinc comprising between about three weight percent and about six weight percent of the coating, wherein the carbon dioxide is reduced to formate;

(ii) a manufacture, comprising:

a substrate; and

tin deposits, the tin deposits having a grain size of between 0.5 microns and five microns, the tin deposits substantially covering the catholyte compartment side surface of the substrate; and

(iii) a manufacture, formed by a process comprising:

(a) immersing a porous and electrically conductive substrate into a solution comprising:

a tin salt;

at least one complexing agent; and

a non-ionic surfactant; and

(b) during step (a):

(I) maintaining the solution at a temperature of between 45 and 70 deg. C; and

(II) applying a cathodic current density of 1.5 to 2.5 mA/cm 2 for between 0.5 and two hours.

12. The process of claim 2 , the catholyte comprising an aqueous solution of about 0.1M to about 3M of a compound selected from the group consisting of:

(i) potassium sulfate having a pH of about 6.5; and

(ii) sodium sulfate having a pH of about 5.5.

13. An apparatus, comprising:

an anolyte compartment, the anolyte compartment at least partially defined by an anode and a membrane;

a catholyte compartment, the catholyte compartment at least partially defined by a cathode-and-pad combination, the cathode-and-pad combination comprising:

a porous cathode; and

a porous, nonconductive pad, the pad positioned adjacent to the membrane side of the cathode;

a catholyte feed in fluid communication with the catholyte compartment;

a gas compartment, the gas compartment in fluid communication with the cathode; and

a voltage source, the voltage source in electrical communication with the anode and with the cathode, the voltage source configured to impress a DC voltage across the anode and the cathode.

14. The apparatus of claim 13 , the cathode comprising:

a porous substrate; and

a coating, the coating comprising:

tin; and

zinc, the zinc comprising between about three weight percent and about six weight percent of the coating.

15. The apparatus of claim 13 , the cathode comprising:

a porous substrate; and

tin, the tin deposited onto the substrate, the tin comprising tin deposits having a grain size of between 0.5 microns and five microns, the tin deposits substantially covering the catholyte compartment side surface of the substrate.

16. The apparatus of claim 13 , the cathode manufactured by a process comprising:

(a) immersing a porous substrate into a solution comprising:

a tin salt;

at least one complexing agent; and

a non-ionic surfactant; and

(b) during step (a):

(i) maintaining the solution at a temperature of between 45 and 70 deg. C; and

(ii) applying a cathodic current density of 1.5 to 2.5 mA/cm 2 for between 0.5 and two hours.

17. The apparatus of claim 13 , the anode comprising:

a titanium substrate; and

a metal oxide catalyst, the metal oxide catalyst comprising:

tantalum oxide deposited onto the substrate; and

iridium oxide deposited onto the tantalum oxide.

18. The apparatus of claim 17 , the cathode comprising:

a porous substrate; and

a coating, the coating comprising:

tin; and

zinc, the zinc comprising between about three weight percent and about six weight percent of the coating.

19. The apparatus of claim 17 , the cathode comprising:

a porous substrate; and

tin deposits, the tin deposits having a grain size of between 0.5 microns and five microns, the tin deposits substantially covering the catholyte compartment side surface of the substrate.

20. The apparatus of claim 17 , the cathode formed by a process comprising:

(a) immersing a porous and electrically conductive substrate into a solution comprising:

a tin salt;

at least one complexing agent; and

a non-ionic surfactant;

(b) maintaining the solution at a temperature of between 45 and 70 deg. C; and

(c) applying a cathodic current density of 1.5 to 2.5 mA/cm 2 for between 0.5 and two hours.

21. The apparatus of claim 13 , wherein the cathode-and-pad combination is spaced apart from the membrane.