Calibrated permeation standards

1. A permeation standard comprising:

a first substrate that is impermeable to an analyte;

a first orifice disposed in the first substrate; and

a first permeable material filling the first orifice;

wherein the first permeable material comprises a material other than a gas, and

wherein the first orifice and the first permeable material are configured to provide a predetermined transmission rate of the analyte through the permeation standard.

2. The permeation standard of claim 1 , wherein the predetermined transmission rate of the analyte through the permeation standard is determined by a geometry of the first orifice and a permeability of the first permeable material to the analyte.

3. The permeation standard of claim 2 , wherein the geometry of the first orifice includes a cross-sectional area of the first orifice and a length of the first orifice.

4. The permeation standard of claim 1 , wherein the analyte is water vapor and the predetermined transmission rate of the analyte through the permeation standard is less than approximately 10 −3 g/m 2 /day.

5. The permeation standard of claim 1 , wherein the first orifice has a diameter between approximately 100 nm and approximately 10 mm.

6. The permeation standard of claim 1 , wherein the first substrate is selected from the group consisting of a copper-containing alloy, aluminum, a steel alloy, silicon, and glass.

7. The permeation standard of claim 1 , wherein the first permeable material comprises a polymer or a composite material.

8. The permeation standard of claim 1 , further comprising a capillary disposed in the first orifice, wherein the capillary is filled with an impermeable material.

9. The permeation standard of claim 1 , further comprising:

a second substrate that is impermeable to the analyte;

a second orifice disposed in the second substrate; and

a second permeable material filling the second orifice;

wherein the first substrate and the second substrate are disposed to form a space such that the first orifice and the second orifice do not align, and

wherein a third permeable material fills the space between the first substrate and the second substrate.

10. The permeation standard of claim 9 , wherein the first, second, and third permeable materials comprise the same polymer.

11. The permeation standard of claim 1 , further comprising:

a second orifice disposed in the first substrate, wherein the first permeable material fills the second orifice.

12. A permeation standard comprising:

a substrate that is impermeable to an analyte;

a capillary disposed in the substrate; and

a permeable material at least partially filling the capillary;

wherein the permeable material comprises a material other than a gas, and

wherein the capillary and the permeable material are configured to provide a predetermined transmission rate of the analyte through the permeation standard.

13. The permeation standard of claim 12 , wherein the predetermined transmission rate of the analyte through the permeation standard is determined by a geometry of the capillary and a permeability of the permeable material to the analyte.

14. The permeation standard of claim 13 , wherein the geometry of the capillary includes a cross-sectional area of the capillary and a length of a filled portion of the capillary.

15. The permeation standard of claim 12 , wherein the analyte is water vapor and the predetermined transmission rate of the analyte through the permeation standard is less than approximately 10 −3 g/m 2 /day.

16. A method for making a permeation standard, the method comprising:

forming a first orifice in a first substrate that is impermeable to an analyte;

selecting a first permeable material; and

filling the first orifice with the first permeable material;

wherein the first permeable material comprises a material other than a gas, and

wherein the first orifice is formed and the first permeable material is selected to provide a predetermined transmission rate of the analyte through the permeation standard.

17. The method of claim 16 , wherein the predetermined transmission rate of the analyte through the permeation standard is determined by a geometry of the first orifice and a permeability of the first permeable material to the analyte.

18. The method of claim 17 , wherein the geometry of the first orifice includes a cross-sectional area of the first orifice and a length of the first orifice.

19. The method of claim 16 , wherein the analyte is water vapor and the predetermined transmission rate of the analyte through the permeation standard is less than approximately 10 −3 g/m 2 /day.

20. The method of claim 16 , further comprising:

forming a second orifice in a second substrate that is impermeable to the analyte;

filling the second orifice with a second permeable material;

disposing the first substrate and second substrate to form a space such that the first orifice and the second orifice do not align; and

filling the space between the first substrate and the second substrate with a third permeable material.

21. The method of claim 20 , wherein the first, second, and third permeable materials comprise the same polymer.

22. The method of claim 16 , further comprising:

forming a second orifice in the first substrate; and

filling the second orifice with the first permeable material.

23. A method for making a permeation standard, the method comprising:

inserting a capillary into an opening in a substrate that is impermeable to an analyte;

sealing the capillary onto the substrate;

selecting a permeable material; and

at least partially filling the capillary with the permeable material;

wherein the permeable material comprises a material other than a gas, and

wherein the capillary and the permeable material are selected to provide a predetermined transmission rate of the analyte through the permeation standard.

24. The method of claim 23 , wherein the sealing is performed by soldering, welding, forming a glass-glass seal with frits, or forming a metal-glass seal.

25. The method of claim 23 , wherein the predetermined transmission rate of the analyte through the permeation standard is determined by a length of a filled portion of the capillary, a cross-sectional area of the capillary, and a permeability of the permeable material to the analyte.

26. The permeation standard of claim 1 , wherein the permeable material and the analyte comprise two different materials.