Electrochemical energy storage devices
An energy storage device includes a cathodic material in an activated state; and an anodic material in an activated state; wherein: the cathodic material is a viologen covalently attached to, or confined within, a first polymer matrix, the first polymer matrix is configured to prevent or minimize substantial diffusion of the cathodic material in the activated state; and the anodic material is a phenazine, a phenothiazine, a triphenodithiazine, a carbazole, a indolocarbazole, a biscarbazole, or a ferrocene covalently attached to, or confined within, a second polymer matrix, the second polymer matrix is configured to prevent or minimize substantial diffusion of the anodic material in the activated state.
1. A energy storage device comprising:
a cathodic material in an activated state; and
an anodic material in an activated state;
wherein:
the cathodic material is a viologen covalently attached to, or confined within, a first polymer matrix, the first polymer matrix configured to prevent or minimize substantial diffusion of the cathodic material in the activated state;
the anodic material is a phenazine, a phenothiazine, a triphenodithiazine, a carbazole, a indolocarbazole, a biscarbazole, or a ferrocene covalently attached to, or confined within, a second polymer matrix, the second polymer matrix configured to prevent or minimize substantial diffusion of the anodic material in the activated state; and
the energy storage device exhibits an open circuit voltage of about 0.2 V to about 1.2 V.
2. The energy storage device of claim 1 that exhibits an open circuit voltage of 0.6 V to 0.8 V.
3. The energy storage device of claim 1 further comprising an electrolyte.
4. The energy storage device of claim 3 , wherein the electrolyte comprises a solvent and a metal salt or an ammonium salt.
5. A energy storage device comprising:
a first cell comprising an anodic material in an activated state;
a second cell comprising a cathodic material in an activated state;
a porous separator isolating the first cell from the second cell; and
wherein:
the anodic material is a phenazine, a phenothiazine, a triphenodithiazine, a carbazole, a indolocarbazole, a biscarbazole, or a ferrocene;
the cathodic material is a viologen; and
the energy storage device exhibits an open circuit voltage of about 0.2 V to about 1.2 V.
6. The energy storage device of claim 5 further comprising an electrolyte comprising a solvent and a metal salt or an ammonium salt.
7. The energy storage device of claim 5 , wherein the separator comprises an ion exchange membrane or a size-exclusion membrane.
8. The energy storage device of claim 5 which is a battery.
9. The energy storage device of claim 5 which is a capacitor, or a supercapacitor.
10. The energy storage device of claim 5 , wherein the anodic compound in an activated state is an anion of a compound is represented by:
wherein:
E is S or NR 10 ;
R 1 and R 10 are individually an alkyl group interrupted by at least one ammonium group;
R 2 -R 9 are individually H, F, Cl, Br, I, CN, OR 11 , SR 11 , NO 2 , alkyl, alkoxy, aryl, amino, or any two adjacent groups of R 2 -R 9 may join to form a monocyclic, polycyclic, or heterocyclic group;
each R 11 is individually H or alkyl; and
R 12 is an alkylene group.
11. The energy storage device of claim 10 , wherein E is NR 10 and R 2 -R 9 are H or OR 11 .
12. The energy storage device of claim 10 , wherein the anodic compound in an activated state is an anion of a compound is represented by:
wherein:
each R 13 is individually H or alkyl;
R 14 is an alkyl group interrupted by at least one ammonium group.
13. The energy storage device of claim 12 , wherein R 1 and R 14 are represented by:
R 15 -R 18 are individually H or alkyl;
n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12;
n′ is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12; and
x is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12.
14. The energy storage device of claim 13 , wherein n is 4, x is 2, and n′ is 11.