Negative electrodes for electrochemical cells
Various embodiments provide a battery, a bulk energy storage system including the battery, and/or a method of operating the bulk energy storage system including the battery. In various embodiment, the battery may include a first electrode, an electrolyte, and a second electrode, wherein one or both of the first electrode and the second electrode comprises direct reduced iron (“DRI”). In various embodiments, the DRI may be in the form of pellets. In various embodiments, the pellets may comprise at least about 60 wt % iron by elemental mass, based on the total mass of the pellets. In various embodiments, one or both of the first electrode and the second electrode comprises from about 60% to about 90% iron and from about 1% to about 40% of a component comprising one or more of the materials selected from the group of SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , MgO, CaO, and TiO 2 .
1. A battery, comprising:
a first electrode;
an electrolyte;
a second electrode, wherein one or both of the first electrode and the second electrode comprises direct reduced iron (“DRI”), wherein the DRI is in the form of pellets, and wherein the pellets have an average length ranging from about 10 mm to about 500 mm, an average width ranging from about 5 mm to about 250 mm, and an average height ranging from about 5 mm to about 200 mm; and
a current collector electrically connected to the pellets.
2. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets comprise at least about 60 wt % iron by elemental mass, based on the total mass of the pellets.
3. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets comprise between about 90 wt % and about 98 wt % metallic iron, based on the total mass of the pellets.
4. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets are spherical, rod-shaped, disk-shaped, plate shaped, briquette-shaped, or a combination thereof.
5. The battery of claim 4 , wherein the pellets comprise hot briquetted iron formed from powdered iron fines or iron pellets.
6. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the DRI comprises iron ore, direct reduced grade iron ore, reduced taconite, wustite, magnetite, hematite, cementite, iron oxide, or any combination thereof.
7. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the DRI comprises DRI fines or powder.
8. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets have an average internal porosity ranging from about 10% to about 90% by volume.
9. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets have an average specific surface area ranging from about 0.19 m 2 /g to about 18 m 2 /g.
10. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets have a volume weighted mean pore size ranging from 1 to 10 microns.
11. The battery of claim 1 , wherein at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode has a thickness of greater than 0.1 cm.
12. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets are spherical and have an average diameter ranging from about 0.5 mm to about 10 cm.
13. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets comprise greater than 0.5 wt % percent silica containing compounds, based on the total weight of the pellets.
14. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets comprise from about 1 wt % to about 5 wt % silica containing compounds by elemental mass, based on the total mass of the pellets.
15. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets comprise from about 1 wt % to about 25 wt % silica containing compounds by elemental mass, based on the total mass of the pellets.
16. The battery of claim 1 , wherein a packing fraction of the pellets in at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode is between 30% and 74%.
17. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets comprise:
a primary phase comprising iron; and
a secondary phase comprising silicon or another metal.
18. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets comprise:
a primary phase comprising iron; and
a secondary phase comprising cementite.
19. The battery of claim 18 , wherein the secondary phase comprises silica or a silicate.
20. The battery of claim 18 , wherein the secondary phase comprises titanium, vanadium, manganese, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, carbon, aluminum, zirconium, or any combinations thereof.
21. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the electrolyte is infiltrated between the pellets.
22. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the current collector contacts a lower surface of at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode, side surfaces of at least one of at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode, extends through at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode, or any combination thereof.
23. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the second electrode further comprises a slurry or a gel.
24. The battery of claim 1 , wherein at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode is a composite metal electrode comprising a mixture of the pellets and a smaller metal particle composition.
25. The battery of claim 24 , wherein the smaller metal particle composition is a powdered metal feedstock.
26. The battery of claim 25 , wherein powdered metal feedstock is wetted by the electrolyte.
27. The battery of claim 24 , wherein the smaller metal particle composition comprises DRI fines, sponge iron, atomized iron, or any combination thereof.
28. The battery of claim 27 , wherein the pellets comprise DR taconite.
29. The battery of claim 1 , wherein:
the pellets are packed in a bed such that macro-pores are created between two or more pellets in contact with one another; and
the pellets each include micro-pores in their respective outer surfaces.
30. The battery of claim 29 , wherein the pellets are fused together.
31. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets are pre-processed chemically, mechanically, thermally, electrically, and/or electrochemically to fuse at least a portion of the pellets into a packed bed.
32. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets each include micro-pores in their respective outer surfaces.
33. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the pellets are initially comprised of at least a portion of cementite (Fe 3 C) before operation of the battery.
34. The battery of claim 1 , wherein at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode further comprises a layer of powdered iron configured to form an interface between the pellets and a current collector of the battery.
35. The battery of claim 1 , further comprising a monitoring system configured to monitor the state-of-charge (SOC) and/or state-of-health of at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode.
36. The battery of claim 35 , wherein the monitoring system comprises one or more sensor and the one or more sensor is selected from the group consisting of a strain gauge, a Mossbauer spectrometer, a CCD detector, an ultrasonic transducer, an ion sensing electrode, a thermocouple, and a gas sensor.
37. The battery of claim 1 , wherein at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode is a composite metal electrode comprising a mixture of the pellets and a conductive material dispersed between individual ones of the pellets.
38. The battery of claim 1 , further comprising an additive delivery system configured to add one or more additives to the electrolyte.
39. The battery of claim 38 , wherein the one or more additives include a salt.
40. The battery of claim 39 , wherein the salt is a carbonate salt or polysulfide salt.
41. The battery of claim 38 , wherein the one or more additives include a sulfur-based additive.
42. The battery of claim 38 , wherein the one or more additives include a surfactant additive.
43. The battery of claim 38 , wherein the one or more additives are configured to mitigate self-discharge and/or suppress the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction.
44. The battery of claim 1 , wherein at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode is under compressive force.
45. The battery of claim 1 , wherein at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode comprises additional conductive material.
46. The battery of claim 45 , wherein the additional conductive material surrounds the iron-containing pellets.
47. The battery of claim 45 , wherein the additional conductive material is a foil, sheet, screen, or wire.
48. A bulk energy storage system, comprising:
one or more batteries, wherein at least one of the one or more batteries comprises:
a first electrode;
an electrolyte;
a second electrode, wherein one or both of the first electrode and the second electrode comprises direct reduced iron (“DRI”), wherein the DRI is in the form of pellets, and wherein the pellets have an average length ranging from about 10 mm to about 500 mm, an average width ranging from about 5 mm to about 250 mm, and an average height ranging from about 5 mm to about 200 mm; and
a current collector electrically connected to the pellets.
49. The bulk energy storage system of claim 48 , wherein at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode is a negative electrode.
50. The bulk energy storage system of claim 49 , wherein at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode further comprises additive pellets.
51. The bulk energy storage system of claim 50 , wherein the additive pellets are comprised of FeS, FeS 2 , Na 2 S, Bi 2 O 3 , a metal sulfide, or combinations thereof.
52. The bulk energy storage system of claim 48 , wherein the pellets are sintered iron pellets comprised of crushed DRI precursors and/or DRI fines.
53. The bulk energy storage system of claim 48 , wherein the pellets are mechanically, chemically, and/or thermally pre-processed before installation in at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode.
54. The bulk energy storage system of claim 48 , wherein the pellets comprise at least about 60 wt % metallic iron based on the total mass of the pellets and the pellets comprise at least 60 percent of the total mass of at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode.
55. The bulk energy storage system of claim 54 , wherein the bulk energy storage system is a long duration energy storage (LODES) system.
56. The bulk energy storage system of claim 53 , wherein the pre-processing includes pre-charging the pellets.