Methods of charging secondary lithium metal batteries to reactive dead lithium with redox shuttling additives and battery control systems incorporating the same
Aspects of the present disclosure include methods of charging secondary lithium metal batteries that include selectively and intentionally overcharging the battery to activate redox shuttling additives in order to reactivate dead lithium. Aspects of the present disclosure also include control systems for determining when to initiate a lithium reactivation charging process and for determining one or more parameters of a lithium reactivation charging protocol.
1. A method of charging a lithium metal battery having a normal operation charging voltage upper limit (V UL ), a redox shuttling additive having an oxidation potential that is greater than V UL , and a lithium metal anode having a current collector and dead lithium that is electrically isolated from the current collector, the method comprising:
charging the lithium metal battery at a lithium reactivation charging voltage, the lithium reactivation charging voltage being greater than V UL ;
oxidizing the redox shuttling additive to form a redox shuttling additive cation-radical;
reacting the cation-radical with the dead lithium to form a neutral redox shuttling additive and a lithium ion; and
redepositing the lithium ion on the anode.
2. The method of claim 1 , wherein the lithium metal battery includes an electrolyte, the method further comprising, determining a diffusion limit of the redox shuttling additive and its cation-radical in the electrolyte, and determining a lithium reactivation charging current according to the diffusion limit.
3. The method of claim 1 , further comprising monitoring a voltage of the lithium metal battery and reducing a lithium reactivation charging current in response to the voltage of the lithium metal battery exceeding the lithium reactivation charging voltage.
4. The method of claim 1 , further comprising monitoring a temperature of the lithium metal battery and determining a lithium reactivation charging current according to the monitored temperature.
5. The method of claim 4 , further comprising increasing or decreasing the lithium reactivation charging current in response to a change in the monitored temperature.
6. The method of claim 1 , wherein the lithium metal anode includes a layer of lithium having a thickness, wherein the thickness of the layer of lithium is less than 50 μm when the battery is initially manufactured and prior to an initial charging of the battery.
7. The method of claim 1 , further comprising, determining to initiate a lithium reactivation charging process and performing the charging, oxidizing, reacting, and redepositing steps in response to determining to initiate the lithium reactivation charging process.
8. The method of claim 7 , wherein the step of determining to initiate a lithium reactivation charging process includes monitoring at least one of a pressure of the lithium metal battery, an impedance of the lithium metal battery, and a number of charge-discharge cycles, and charging at the lithium reactivation charging voltage when one or more of the monitored pressure, impedance, and charge-discharge cycles exceeds a corresponding threshold value.
9. The method of claim 1 , wherein the redox shuttling additive is one or more of 2,5-Di-tert-butyl-1,4-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)benzene (DBBB), 2,5-Di-tert-butyl-1,4-bis(methoxy)benzene (DDB), 2,5-Di-tert-butyl-1,4-bis(2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy)benzene (DBDFB), 2,5-Di-tert-butyl-1,4-bis(2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropyloxy)benzene (DBTFP), 2,5-Di-tert-butyl-1,4-bis(4,4,4,3,2,2-hexafluorobutyloxy)benzene (DBHFB), 2,7-Diacetylthiathrene, 2,7-Dibromthianthrene, 2,7-diisobutanoylthianthrene, 2-acetylthianthrene, 2,5-Difluoro-1,4-dimethoxybenzene (DFDB), 2 -(Pentafluorophenyl)-tetrafluoro-1,3,2-benzodioxaborole, Li2B12F12, Tetraethyl-2,5-di-tert-butyl-1,4-phenylene diphosphate (TEDBPDP), 1,4-Bis[bis(1-methylethyl)phosphinyl]-2,5-dimethoxylbenzene (BPDB), 1,4-Bis[bis(1-methyl)phosphinyl]-2,5-difluoro-3,6-dimethyoxylbenzene (BPDFDB), Pentafluorophenyl-tetrafluorobenzyl-1,2-dioxoborone (PFPTFBDB), Ferrocene and their derivatives, phenothiazine derivatives, N,N-dialkyl-dihydrophenazine, 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperinyloxide (TEMPO), Li2B12H12-xFx (x=9 and 12).
10. The method of claim 1 , wherein the lithium metal battery includes a cathode having intercalation sites that receive lithium ions during discharge of the battery, further wherein V UL is a voltage corresponding to a condition where substantially all of the lithium ions stored in the intercalation sites have been removed or a condition where further removal of lithium ions from the cathode would damage the cathode.
11. The method of claim 1 , wherein the lithium reactivation charging voltage is less than a voltage safety limit, wherein unwanted chemical reactions begin to occur above the voltage safety limit.
12. The method of claim 11 , wherein the lithium metal battery includes an electrolyte and a cathode, wherein the unwanted chemical reactions include at least one of oxidation of the electrolyte and decomposition of the cathode resulting in the production of one or more gases.
13. A method of charging a lithium metal battery having a cathode and a redox shuttling additive, the method comprising:
determining a likelihood of dead lithium on an anode of the lithium metal battery; and
initiating a lithium reactivation charging process in response to the determined likelihood being greater than a threshold value;
wherein the lithium reactivation charging process includes charging the battery with a lithium reactivation charging current, the lithium reactivation charging current designed and configured to increase a potential of the cathode above a normal operation charging voltage upper limit (V UL ) to oxidize the redox shuttling additive and reactivate the dead lithium with the oxidized redox shuttling additive.
14. The method of claim 13 , wherein the step of determining a likelihood of dead lithium includes monitoring at least one of a pressure of the lithium metal battery, an impedance of the lithium metal battery, and a number of charge-discharge cycles, and charging the battery with the lithium reactivation charging current when one or more of the monitored pressure, impedance, and charge-discharge cycles exceeds a corresponding threshold value.
15. The method of claim 13 , wherein the lithium metal battery includes a cathode having intercalation sites that receive lithium ions during discharge of the battery, further wherein V UL is a voltage corresponding to a condition where substantially all of the lithium ions stored at the intercalation sites have been removed or a condition where further removal of lithium ions from the cathode would damage the cathode.
16. The method of claim 13 , wherein the redox shuttling additive is one or more of 2,5-Di-tert-butyl-1,4-bis(2-methoxyethoxy)benzene (DBBB), 2,5-Di-tert-butyl-1,4-bis(methoxy)benzene (DDB), 2,5-Di-tert-butyl-1,4-bis(2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy)benzene (DBDFB), 2,5-Di-tert-butyl-1,4-bis(2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropyloxy)benzene (DBTFP), 2,5-Di-tert-butyl-1,4-bis(4,4,4,3,2,2-hexafluorobutyloxy)benzene (DBHFB), 2,7-Diacetylthiathrene, 2,7-Dibromthianthrene, 2,7-diisobutanoylthianthrene, 2-acetylthianthrene, 2,5-Difluoro-1,4-dimethoxybenzene (DFDB), 2 -(Pentafluorophenyl)-tetrafluoro-1,3,2-benzodioxaborole, Li2B12F12, Tetraethyl-2,5-di-tert-butyl-1,4-phenylene diphosphate (TEDBPDP), 1,4-Bis[bis(1-methylethyl)phosphinyl]-2,5-dimethoxylbenzene (BPDB), 1,4-Bis[bis(1-methyl)phosphinyl]-2,5-difluoro-3,6-dimethyoxylbenzene (BPDFDB), Pentafluorophenyl-tetrafluorobenzyl-1,2-dioxoborone (PFPTFBDB), Ferrocene and their derivatives, phenothiazine derivatives, N,N-dialkyl-dihydrophenazine, 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperinyloxide (TEMPO), Li2B12H12-xFx (x=9 and 12).
17. The method of claim 13 , wherein the lithium metal battery includes an anode having a layer of lithium metal having a thickness, wherein the thickness of the layer of lithium is less than 50 μm when the battery is initially manufactured and prior to an initial charging of the battery.
18. The method of claim 13 , wherein the lithium metal battery includes an anode having a current collector, wherein the dead lithium is lithium metal located on a surface of the anode that is electrically isolated from the current collector.
19. A method of charging a lithium metal battery having a lithium metal anode, a redox shuttling additive and dead lithium on the anode, the method comprising:
intentionally overcharging the battery to activate the redox shuttling additive and form shuttling additive cation radicals for chemically reacting with the dead lithium to release lithium ions from the dead lithium.
20. The method of claim 19 , wherein the step of intentionally overcharging the battery includes charging the lithium metal battery at a lithium reactivation charging voltage, the lithium reactivation charging voltage being greater than a normal operation charging voltage upper limit (V UL ).
21. The method of claim 20 , wherein the redox shuttling additive has an oxidation potential that is greater than V UL .
22. The method of claim 19 , wherein the step of intentionally overcharging the battery includes charging the battery with a lithium reactivation charging current, the lithium reactivation charging current designed and configured to increase a potential of a cathode of the battery above a normal operation charging voltage upper limit (V UL ) to oxidize the redox shuttling additive.
23. The method of claim 22 , wherein the lithium metal battery includes a cathode having intercalation sites that receive lithium ions during discharge of the battery, further wherein V UL is a voltage corresponding to a condition where substantially all of the lithium ions stored in the intercalation sites have been removed or a condition where further removal of lithium ions from the cathode would damage the cathode.
24. The method of claim 22 , wherein the step of charging the battery with a lithium reactivation charging current includes continuing to apply a normal operation charging current for a an extended duration after a cell voltage of the battery reaches V UL .
25. The method of claim 22 , wherein the step of charging the battery with a lithium reactivation charging current includes applying a charging current that is sufficient to activate the redox shuttling additive and less than a diffusion limit of the shuttling additive.
26. The method of claim 19 , wherein the anode includes a current collector, wherein the dead lithium is lithium metal located on a surface of the anode that is electrically isolated from the current collector.