Composite electrode

1. An energy storage apparatus comprising:

an active layer comprising:

a network of carbon nanotubes defining void spaces; and

a carbonaceous material located in the void spaces and bound by the network of carbon nanotubes; and

an adhesion layer disposed between the active layer and an electrically conductive layer, wherein the adhesion layer comprises at least ninety percent single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNT) by weight;

wherein the active layer is configured to provide energy storage;

wherein the active layer is substantially free from binding agents and consists essentially of carbonaceous material;

wherein the active layer is bound together and to the adhesion layer by forces between the carbon nanotubes and the carbonaceous material;

wherein the network of carbon nanotubes makes up less than ten percent by weight of the active layer;

wherein the network of carbon nanotubes comprises an electrically interconnected network of carbon nanotubes exhibiting connectivity above a percolation threshold

wherein the interconnected network of carbon nanotubes comprises one or more highly conductive pathways, the pathways comprising a length greater than 100 μm;

wherein the interconnected network of carbon nanotubes includes one or more structures formed of the carbon nanotubes, the structure comprising an overall length at least ten times the average length of component carbon nanotubes making up the structure.

2. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the carbonaceous material comprises activated carbon.

3. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the carbonaceous material comprises nanoform carbon other than carbon nanotubes.

4. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the interconnected network of carbon nanotubes comprises conductive paths configured to facilitate current flow within and through the active layer.

5. The apparatus of claim 4 , wherein the long conductive paths have a length on the order of a thickness of the active layer.

6. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the network of carbon nanotubes makes up less than 1% by weight of the active layer.

7. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the network of carbon nanotubes makes up less than 5% by weight of the active layer.

8. The apparatus of claim 7 , wherein the adhesion layer consists essentially of carbon nanotubes disposed between the active layer and the electrically conductive layer.

9. The apparatus of claim 8 , wherein a surface of the electrically conductive layer facing the adhesion layer comprises a roughened or textured portion.

10. The apparatus of claim 8 , wherein a surface of the electrically conductive layer facing the adhesion layer comprises a nanostructured portion.

11. The apparatus of claim 10 , wherein the nanostructured portion comprises carbide nanowhiskers.

12. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein at least one of the carbonaceous material, the conductive layer and the active layer has been annealed.

13. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the active layer has been compressed to deform at least a portion of the network of carbon nanotubes and carbonaceous material.

14. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the highly conductive pathways comprise pathways having a length greater than 500 μm.

15. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the highly conductive pathways comprise pathways having a length greater than 1,000 μm.

16. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the interconnected network of carbon nanotubes includes a structure formed from component carbon nanotubes that comprise an overall length at least 100 times the average length of the component carbon nanotubes making up the structure.

17. The apparatus of claim 16 , wherein with the highly conductive pathways comprise a length on the order of the size of the active storage layer.

18. An ultracapacitor comprising:

a pair of electrodes separated by a permeable separator; and

an electrolyte wetting the electrodes and the separator;

wherein an active layer of each of the electrodes comprises:

a network of carbon nanotubes defining void spaces; and

a carbonaceous material located in the void spaces and bound by the network of carbon nanotubes; and

an adhesion layer disposed between the active layer and a current collector, wherein the adhesion layer comprises at least ninety percent single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNT) by weight;

wherein the active layer is configured to provide energy storage;

wherein the active layer is substantially free from binding agents and consists essentially of carbonaceous material;

wherein the active layer is bound together and to the adhesion layer by forces between the carbon nanotubes and the carbonaceous material;

wherein the network of carbon nanotubes makes up less than ten percent by weight of the active layer;

wherein the network of carbon nanotubes comprises an electrically interconnected network of carbon nanotubes exhibiting connectivity above a percolation threshold

wherein the interconnected network of carbon nanotubes comprises one or more highly conductive pathways, the pathways comprising a length greater than 100 μm;

wherein the interconnected network of carbon nanotubes includes one or more structures formed of the carbon nanotubes, the structure comprising an overall length at least ten times the average length of component carbon nanotubes making up the structure.

19. The apparatus of claim 18 , wherein the ultracapacitor has an operating voltage of at least 3.0 V.

20. The apparatus of claim 18 , wherein the ultracapacitor has an operating voltage of at least 3.2 V.

21. The apparatus of claim 18 , wherein the ultracapacitor has an operating voltage of at least 4.0 V.

22. The apparatus of claim 18 , wherein the ultracapacitor has a maximum operating temperature of at least 250° C. at an operating voltage of at least 2V for a lifetime of at least 1,000 hours.

23. The apparatus of claim 18 , wherein the ultracapacitor has a maximum operating temperature of at least 250° C. at an operating voltage of at least 3V for a lifetime of at least 1,000 hours.

24. The apparatus of claim 18 , wherein the ultracapacitor has a maximum operating temperature of at least 250° C. at an operating voltage of at least 4V for a lifetime of at least 1,000 hours.

25. The apparatus of claim 18 , wherein the ultracapacitor has a maximum operating temperature of at least 300° C. at an operating voltage of at least 1V for a lifetime of at least 1,000 hours.

26. The apparatus of claim 18 , wherein the ultracapacitor has a maximum operating temperature of at least 300° C. at an operating voltage of at least 2V for a lifetime of at least 1,000 hours.

27. The apparatus of claim 18 , wherein the ultracapacitor has a maximum operating temperature of at least 300° C. at an operating voltage of at least 3V for a lifetime of at least 1,000 hours.

28. The apparatus of claim 18 , wherein the ultracapacitor has a maximum operating temperature of at least 300° C. at an operating voltage of at least 4V for a lifetime of at least 1,000 hours.

29. A battery comprising:

a pair of electrodes separated by a permeable separator; and

an electrolyte wetting the electrodes and the separator;

wherein an active layer of each of the electrodes comprises:

a network of carbon nanotubes defining void spaces; and

a carbonaceous material located in the void spaces and bound by the network of carbon nanotubes; and

an adhesion layer disposed between the active layer and a current collector, wherein the adhesion layer comprises at least ninety percent single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNT) by weight;

wherein the active layer is configured to provide energy storage;

wherein the active layer is substantially free from binding agents and comprises carbonaceous material;

wherein the active layer is bound together and to the adhesion layer by forces between the carbon nanotubes and the carbonaceous material;

wherein the network of carbon nanotubes makes up less than ten percent by weight of the active layer;

wherein the network of carbon nanotubes comprises an electrically interconnected network of carbon nanotubes exhibiting connectivity above a percolation threshold;

wherein the interconnected network of carbon nanotubes comprises one or more highly conductive pathways, the pathways comprising a length greater than 100 μm;

wherein the interconnected network of carbon nanotubes includes one or more structures formed of the carbon nanotubes, the structure comprising an overall length at least ten times the average length of component carbon nanotubes making up the structure.