High voltage battery composed of anode limited electrochemical cells

1. A method of operating an electrochemical energy storage device, comprising

charging a plurality of aqueous electrolyte electrochemical cells connected electrically in series, such that a charge storage capacity of an anode electrode in at least one of the plurality of cells is exceeded on charging,

wherein water in the aqueous electrolyte electrolyzes to form hydrogen and OH − species at the anode electrode of the at least one of the plurality of cells when the charge storage capacity of the anode electrode of the at least one of the plurality of cells is exceeded on charging the at least one of the plurality of cells, wherein:

each of the plurality of cells further comprises a cathode electrode;

the charge storage capacity of the anode electrode is less than a charge storage capacity of the cathode electrode in each of the plurality of cells;

each of the plurality of cells is a secondary hybrid aqueous energy storage cell;

the cathode electrode in operation reversibly intercalates alkali metal cations; and

the anode electrode is a capacitive electrode which stores charge through a nonfaradiac reaction of the alkali metal cations on a surface of the anode electrode or a pseudocapacitive electrode which undergoes a partial charge transfer surface interaction with the alkali metal cations on the surface of the anode electrode.

2. The method of claim 1 ,

wherein the charge storage capacity of the anode electrode is 50-90% of the charge storage capacity of the cathode electrode.

3. The method of claim 1 , wherein:

the cathode electrode comprises a doped or undoped cubic spinel λ-MnO 2 -type material or a NaMn 9 O 18 tunnel structured orthorhombic material,

the anode electrode comprises activated carbon,

the aqueous electrolyte comprises a combination of one or more alkali cations and SO 4 anion species solvated in water, and

a cell level voltage is not monitored or controlled.

4. The method of claim 1 , wherein:

the OH − species increase a pH proximal to the surface of the anode electrode;

the increase in pH lowers a voltage stability window of the aqueous electrolyte, thereby reducing or eliminating further hydrogen evolution; and

the hydrogen species formed on charging the at least one of the plurality of cells combines with the OH − species on discharging of the at least one of the plurality of cells.

5. The method of claim 3 , further comprising

charging the electrochemical energy storage device at a voltage 1.5 times greater or 0.8 volts higher than a voltage at which electrolysis of the water at the anode electrode is initiated.

6. The method of claim 1 , wherein the electrochemical energy storage device shows no loss of capacity after 50 charge-discharge cycles during which the charge storage capacity of the anode electrode in the at least one of the plurality of cells is exceeded on charging.

7. The method of claim 4 , wherein the anode electrode consists essentially of activated carbon.