Dynamic macropore formation using multiple porogens

1. A method for making a macroporous 3-D tissue engineering scaffold from an article comprising multiple distinct macroparticulate porogens and living cells distributed within a polymer scaffold, wherein the porogens are selectively and sequentially dissolvable by corresponding distinct biocompatible stimuli, comprising: sequentially contacting the article with said distinct biocompatible stimuli, wherein each of the porogens is selectively and sequentially dissolved by the corresponding biocompatible stimulus, thereby temporally and spatially controllably forming macropores within the polymer scaffold, wherein the tissue engineering scaffold is formed.

2. The method of claim 1 wherein the polymer is a natural polymer selected from a protein, a polypeptide, a polynucleotide, a natural resin, a rubber, and a polysaccharide, or a synthetic polymer selected from polystyrene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyether, polyester, polyamide, polyimide, and organosilicon compound, or a combination thereof.

3. The method of claim 1 , wherein the polymer is a natural polymer selected from fibrin, fibrinogen, fibronectin, collagen, gelatin, dextran, chondroitin sulfate, alginate, chitosan, chitin, hyaluronic acid, heparin sulfate, a protein, a nucleotide, a polysaccharide, and a glycosaminoglycan.

4. The method of claim 1 , wherein the polymer is synthetic polymer selected from poly (ethylene glycol), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), poly (glycolic acid), poly (lactic acid), polycaprolactone, poly(methyl methacrylate), polyurethane, and a silicone.

5. The method of claim 1 , wherein the polymer is modified gelatin comprising cross-linked methacrylate functional groups.

6. The method of claim 1 wherein each of the porogens comprises gelatin, hyaluronic acid, or alginate.

7. The method of claim 1 wherein each of the stimuli is a change in one or more of temperature, pH, ionic strength, electromagnetic radiation exposure, enzyme activity, chelator activity and mechanical agitation.

8. The method of claim 1 wherein the article comprises three distinct macroparticulate porogens, and the method comprises sequentially contacting the article with corresponding three distinct stimuli.

9. The method of claim 1 wherein the article comprises three distinct macroparticulate porogens and the method comprises sequentially contacting the article with corresponding three distinct stimuli, wherein the three distinct porogens comprise gelatin, hyaluronic acid and alginate, respectively, and the three distinct stimuli are a change in temperature, a change in EDTA chelator activity and a change in hyaluronidase enzyme activity, respectively, and wherein the polymer is modified gelatin comprising cross-linked methacrylate functional groups.

10. The method of claim 1 wherein the article comprises three distinct macroparticulate porogens and the method comprises sequentially contacting the article with corresponding three distinct stimuli, wherein the three distinct porogens comprise gelatin, hyaluronic acid and alginate, respectively, and the three distinct stimuli are a change in temperature, a change in EDTA chelator activity and a change in hyaluronidase enzyme activity, respectively, and wherein the polymer is modified gelatin comprising cross-linked methacrylate functional groups, and the cells are chondrocytes.

11. The method of claim 1 , wherein the macropores have average pore size in the range 10-500 μm.

12. The method of claim 1 , wherein the density of the cells does not decrease with distance from a surface of the article.

13. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tissue engineering scaffold is at least 1 cm 3 in volume.

14. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tissue engineering scaffold comprises bioactive ligands that specifically interact with biomolecules of the cells or bind biomolecules that interact with the biomolecules of the cells, to direct cell fate or induce the cells to form a tissue, the ligands being selected from the group consisting of carboxyl, amine, phenol, guanidine, thiol, indole, imidazole, hydroxyl, sulfate, norbornene, maleimide, laminin, fibronectin, fibrinogen, peptide sequences, and combinations thereof.

15. The method of claim 1 , wherein the porogens have the shape of a sphere, an ellipsoid, a polyhedron, a cube, a rod, a cylinder, a sheet, a fiber, a ribbon, a helix, or a ring.

16. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tissue engineering scaffold is saturated with a cell growth medium.

17. The method of claim 1 , wherein the article is an implant in a body, and the sequential contacting and macropore formation occur inside the body.

18. The method of claim 1 , wherein the article is an implant in a body, and the sequential contacting and macropore formation occur inside the body, wherein the method promotes growth of skin, fat, bone, muscle, skeletomuscular, cardiovascular, or cartilage tissue of the body.

19. The method of claim 1 , wherein the tissue engineering scaffold is loaded with a drug and shaped as drug distribution vehicle.

20. The method of claim 1 , wherein:

a) the tissue engineering scaffold has a density in the range 2.5 to 10% (wt/v);

b) the tissue engineering scaffold has a tunable compressive modulus from 0.3 kPa to 100 kPa

c) the tissue engineering scaffold sustains 90% strain and 35 MPa stress without failing;

d) the tissue engineering scaffold maintains more than 50% strain energy after being exposed to 60, 70% cyclic compressions,

e) the tissue engineering scaffold maintains more than 50% compressive modulus at 20-30% strain after receiving 80% cyclic compressions;

e) the tissue engineering scaffold visually reverses to its original shape after receiving 90% cyclic-strain; or

f) as compression on the tissue engineering scaffold increases up to 90%, the density increases, and the compressive modulus of the tissue engineering scaffold increases non-linearly from 20 kPa to 35,600 kPa.