Systems and methods for detecting a substance in bodily fluid

1. A method for determining a parameter of a substance in a sample, the method comprising:

providing a substrate comprising an active sensor and a control sensor,

wherein the active sensor comprises a first electrical component having a first electrical characteristic and at least one functionalized structure in electrical communication with the first electrical component, wherein the functionalized structure includes a number of binding receptors, wherein the binding receptors comprise engineered proteins, wherein the functionalized structure is coupled to a portion of the substrate in a vicinity of the active sensor, and wherein the portion of the substrate in the vicinity of the active sensor is an area of the substrate separated from the active sensor, and

wherein the control sensor comprises a second electrical component having a second electrical characteristic;

introducing the sample to the substrate, wherein introducing the sample results in binding of the substance to the binding receptors and results in the release of ions such that the release of ions results in a change in the first electrical characteristic of the first electrical component;

comparing the first electrical characteristic of the first electrical component with the second electrical characteristic of the second electrical component;

using the comparison to determine at least one parameter of the substance in the sample; and

producing an output of the at least one parameter.

2. The method of claim 1 , wherein the functionalized structure includes a permeable membrane, hydrogel, PVC, or other filter, for allowing only the passage of a target moiety.

3. The method of claim 1 , wherein the control sensor includes a passivation structure such as a self-assembled monolayer (SAM), metal layer, polymer layer, or any biochemically inert material.

4. The method of claim 1 , wherein the parameter of the substance in the sample determined by the comparison of the first electrical characteristic and the second electrical characteristic is concentration.

5. The method of claim 1 , wherein the substance includes a therapeutic , drug, biological moiety, chemical moiety, toxin, ion, antibody, peptide, oligonucleotide, pathogen, cells, or natural or engineered ligands.

6. The method of claim 1 , wherein comparing the first electrical characteristic of the first electrical component with the second electrical characteristic of the second electrical component includes comparing at least one of a frequency, current, voltage, resistance, impedance, capacitance, conductivity, induction, threshold voltage, transconductance, subthreshold swing, piezo-resistivity, magnetic field, and electrical noise of the first electrical component with that of the second electrical component.

7. The method of claim 1 , wherein the at least one parameter of the substance in the sample is concentration.

8. The method of claim 1 , wherein the first electrical component comprises at least one of a transistor, a capacitor, a resistor, and an inverter.

9. The method of claim 1 , wherein the second electrical component comprises at least one of a transistor, a capacitor, a resistor, and an inverter.

10. The method of claim 1 , wherein the active sensor is covered by at least one of a noble metal layer, a nanoparticle layer, and an organic layer.

11. The method of claim 1 , wherein the binding receptor is configured to interact with the substance to undergo a reaction resulting in the release of ions and the release of ions affects the first electrical characteristic of the first electrical component.

12. The method of claim 11 , wherein the reaction resulting in the release of ions comprises:

the binding receptor binding the substance;

introducing a first molecule having a second binding receptor to the active sensor, wherein the second binding receptor binds to a different site of the substance bound by the binding receptor; and

introducing a second molecule to the active sensor, wherein the introduction of the first molecule having the second binding receptor and the second molecule to the active sensor results in an enzymatic reaction that releases ions.