Recycling electrochemical cells and batteries

1. A method comprising:

formulating a lead-acid battery active material paste, the lead-acid battery active material paste comprising:

directly recycled lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) recovered from lead-acid battery scrap, wherein the directly recycled lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) is not subjected to pyrometallurgical operations or to hydrometallurgical operations between the recovery and the formulation; and

at least one of the following:

barium sulfate;

magnesium sulfate; and

pasting the lead-acid battery active material paste to a lead alloy battery grid, wherein the pasting comprises applying the lead-acid battery active material paste to the grid, wherein a mass of the lead-acid battery active material paste is integrated into a grid structure.

2. The method of claim 1 , wherein the pasting of the lead-acid battery active material paste to a lead alloy battery grid comprises:

curing the applied lead-acid battery active material paste, wherein the lead-acid battery active material paste hardens and adheres to the grid structure to provide an intermediate plate; and

forming the intermediate plate by passing an electrical current through the intermediate plate in contact with an aqueous sulfuric acid solution.

3. The method of claim 2 , wherein the intermediate plate is formed to provide a positive plate comprising lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) active material integrated into the grid structure.

4. The method of claim 2 , further comprising connecting a plurality of formed plates together in parallel with a strap to provide a plate pack.

5. The method of claim 4 , further comprising assembling two plate packs and a plurality of separators into an electrochemical cell.

6. The method of claim 5 , further comprising assembling a battery comprising at least one electrochemical cell inside a plastic casing containing an aqueous sulfuric acid electrolyte in contact with the plates.

7. The method of claim 1 , wherein formulating the active material paste comprises mixing together components comprising an aqueous sulfuric acid solution and recycled lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) powder recovered from lead-acid battery scrap.

8. The method of claim 1 , further comprising providing the directly recycled lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) recovered from lead-acid battery scrap, wherein the providing comprising:

separating lead-acid battery paste from lead-acid battery scrap;

suspending the lead-acid battery paste in water; and

performing at least one froth flotation operation to separate lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) from the suspension.

9. The method of claim 8 , wherein lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) is separated from metallic lead, lead oxide (PbO), and/or lead sulfate (PbSO 4 ) in the suspension.

10. The method of claim 8 , wherein the directly recycled lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) is provided by a process further comprising classifying the separated lead-acid battery paste to particle sizes of less than 200 micrometers before suspending the lead-acid battery paste in water.

11. The method of claim 8 , wherein the directly recycled lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) is provided by a process comprising:

separating lead-acid battery paste from lead-acid battery scrap;

suspending the lead-acid battery paste in water;

adding a froth flotation agent to the suspension;

sparging a froth flotation vessel with a gas to create a froth in the suspension; and

separating lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) from the suspension.

12. The method of claim 11 , wherein the froth flotation agent comprises at least one of mercaptobenzothiazole, sodium mercaptobenzothiazole, or dialkyl dithiophosphinate.