Ozone-treated carbon electrodes

1. A method comprising:

providing a material comprising carbon nanotubes;

exposing the material to ozone for about 1 minute to about 50 minutes to form an ozone-exposed material; and

providing an electrochemical device comprising a cathode comprising a substantially transparent film comprising the ozone-exposed material, wherein the cathode does not include a platinum catalyst, wherein the film has a transmittance at about 550 nm of about 70% to about 98%;

wherein the exposing the material to ozone increases the surface defect density of the material sufficiently such that the catalytic activity, as measured as (1/charge transfer resistance), of the cathode comprising the ozone-exposed material is at least about 1.5 times greater than the catalytic activity, as measured as (1/charge transfer resistance), of a corresponding cathode comprising the material before ozone exposure.

2. The method of claim 1 , wherein the cathode comprises a working electrode cathode in the electrochemical device, such that the electrochemical device is configured to use the catalytic activity of the working electrode cathode in an electrochemical reaction.

3. The method of claim 1 , wherein forming the substantially transparent film comprising carbon nanotubes comprises depositing carbon nanotubes on a transparent substrate.

4. The method of claim 1 , wherein exposing the material to ozone comprises exposing the material to ozone for a duration of between about 1 minute and about 30 minutes.

5. The method of claim 1 , wherein treating the material with ozone comprises exposing the material to ozone so as to substantially increase catalytic activity of the material comprises obtaining an electrode charge transfer resistance that is at least one of: less than about 22 ohms·cm 2 at a light transmittance at 550 nm of at least 98%; less than about 5 ohms·cm 2 at a light transmittance at 550 nm of at least 88%; less than about 2 ohms·cm 2 at a light transmittance at 550 nm of at least 82%; or less than about 1 ohms·cm 2 at a light transmittance at 550 nm of at least 76%.

6. The method of claim 1 , wherein the electrochemical device comprises at least one of a dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC), a battery, a fuel cell, and an electroanalytical instrument.

7. The method of claim 1 , wherein exposing the material to ozone comprises generating the ozone using ultraviolet (UV) light.

8. The method of claim 1 , wherein the electrochemical device comprises a dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC).

9. The method of claim 8 , wherein providing the cathode in the DSSC as a cathode comprises providing the cathode in the DSSC in place of at least one of a transparent conducting oxide (TCO) or a platinum catalyst.

10. The method of claim 1 , wherein providing the cathode comprising the substantially transparent film comprises airbrushing the carbon nanotubes onto a substrate.

11. The method of claim 1 , further comprising providing a dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC) comprising:

the cathode, wherein the nanotubes comprise single-walled carbon nanotubes that have been airbrushed to form the substantially transparent film;

an anode comprising TiO 2 nanoparticles comprising chemically adsorbed dye molecules;

an electrolyte comprising a solution of iodide and triiodide; and

wherein the anode, the cathode, and the electrolyte are configured to use the catalytic activity of the cathode in an electrochemical reaction that catalyzes the reduction of triiodide without requiring a platinum catalyst.

12. The method of claim 1 , wherein the exposing the material to ozone is sufficient such that the catalytic activity, as measured by (1/charge transfer resistance), of the cathode comprising the ozone-exposed material is about 1.5 times to about 10 times greater than the catalytic activity, as measured by (1/charge transfer resistance), of a corresponding cathode comprising the material before ozone exposure.

13. The method of claim 1 , wherein the electrochemical device comprises a dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC), wherein the

the ozone-treated material is provided in place of a platinum catalyst, such that the DSSC comprising the ozone-treated material has about the same or greater efficiency as a corresponding DSSC having a cathode comprising platinum in place of the cathode comprising the ozone-treated material.

14. The method of claim 1 , wherein the increase in the catalytic activity of the material is such that the catalytic activity, as measured by (1/charge transfer resistance), of the cathode comprising the ozone-exposed material is at least 3 times greater than the catalytic activity, as measured by (1/charge transfer resistance), of a corresponding cathode comprising the material before ozone exposure.

15. The method of claim 1 , wherein the increase in the catalytic activity of the material is such that the catalytic activity, as measured by (1/charge transfer resistance), of the cathode comprising the ozone-exposed material is at least 10 times greater than the catalytic activity, as measured by (1/charge transfer resistance), of a corresponding cathode comprising the material before ozone exposure.

16. A method comprising:

providing a material comprising carbon nanotubes;

exposing the material to ozone for about 1 minute to about 50 minutes to form an ozone-exposed material; and

providing a dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) comprising a cathode comprising a substantially transparent film comprising the ozone-exposed material, wherein the electrode does not include a platinum catalyst, wherein the film has a transmittance at about 550 nm of about 70% to about 98%;

wherein the exposing the material to ozone increases the surface defect density of the material sufficiently such that the catalytic activity, as measured by (1/charge transfer resistance), of the cathode comprising the ozone-exposed material is at least about 1.5 times greater than the catalytic activity, as measured by (1/charge transfer resistance), of a corresponding cathode comprising the material before ozone exposure.