Underpotential deposition-mediated layer-by-layer growth of thin films
A method of depositing contiguous, conformal submonolayer-to-multilayer thin films with atomic-level control is described. The process involves the use of underpotential deposition of a first element to mediate the growth of a second material by overpotential deposition. Deposition occurs between a potential positive to the bulk deposition potential for the mediating element where a full monolayer of mediating element forms, and a potential which is less than, or only slightly greater than, the bulk deposition potential of the material to be deposited. By cycling the applied voltage between the bulk deposition potential for the mediating element and the material to be deposited, repeated desorption/adsorption of the mediating element during each potential cycle can be used to precisely control film growth on a layer-by-layer basis. This process is especially suitable for the formation of a catalytically active layer on core-shell particles for use in energy conversion devices such as fuel cells.
1. A method of forming a film on a substrate by electrodeposition comprising:
immersing the substrate in an electrolyte comprising a predetermined concentration of ions of a mediating element and a predetermined concentration of ions of a material to be deposited as the film;
initiating a reverse potential sweep at a first potential which is less than the bulk deposition potential of the material to be deposited as the film;
sweeping the potential applied to the substrate in a negative direction at a first sweep rate;
stopping the negative sweep at a second potential which is greater than a bulk deposition potential of the mediating element;
sweeping the potential applied to the substrate in a positive direction at a second sweep rate;
stopping the positive sweep at the first potential; and
repeating the negative and positive sweeps between the first and second potentials.
2. The method of claim 1 , wherein up to one monolayer of the mediating element is formed on the substrate prior to immersing the substrate in the electrolyte.
3. The method of claim 1 , wherein the potential sweep is stopped at a potential positive enough to completely remove the mediating element.
4. The method of claim 1 , wherein the first and second sweep rates are constant in time.
5. The method of claim 4 , wherein the first sweep rate is equal to the second sweep rate.
6. The method of claim 1 , wherein the substrate comprises nanoparticles.
7. The method of claim 6 , wherein the nanoparticles are core-shell nanoparticles.
8. The method of claim 7 , wherein the nanoparticles comprise a noble metal.
9. The method of claim 7 , wherein the core comprises a non-noble metal.
10. The method of claim 9 , wherein the nanoparticles comprise a noble metal.
11. The method of claim 6 , 7 , or 9 , wherein the nanoparticles comprise a noble metal.
12. The method of claim 1 , wherein the mediating element comprises a metal.
13. The method of claim 12 , wherein the mediating element is selected from the group consisting of Cu, Pb, Tl, and Bi.
14. The method of claim 1 , wherein the material to be deposited as the film is a noble metal.
15. The method of claim 14 , wherein the material to be deposited as the film is Pt.
16. The method of claim 1 , wherein the film thickness is in the submonolayer to multilayer range.
17. The method of claim 1 , wherein the negative and positive sweeps between the first and second potentials are repeated a predetermined number of times.
18. A method of forming a Pt film on a substrate by electrodeposition comprising:
immersing the substrate in an electrolyte comprising a predetermined concentration of Cu cations and a predetermined concentration of Pt cations;
initiating a negative potential sweep at a first potential which is less than the bulk deposition potential of Pt;
sweeping the potential applied to the substrate in a negative direction at a first sweep rate;
stopping the negative sweep at a second potential which is greater than a bulk deposition potential of Cu;
sweeping the potential applied to the substrate in a positive direction at a second sweep rate;
stopping the positive sweep at the first potential; and
repeating the negative and positive sweeps between the first and second potentials.
19. The method of claim 18 , wherein up to one monolayer of Cu is formed on the substrate prior to immersing the substrate in the electrolyte.
20. The method of claim 18 , wherein the potential sweep is stopped at a potential positive enough to completely remove Cu.
21. The method of claim 18 , wherein the substrate comprises nanoparticles.
22. The method of claim 21 , wherein the nanoparticles comprise a noble metal.
23. The method of claim 21 , wherein the nanoparticles are core-shell nanoparticles.
24. The method of claim 23 , wherein the nanoparticles comprise a noble metal.
25. The method of claim 23 , wherein the core comprises a non-noble metal.
26. The method of claim 25 , wherein the nanoparticles comprise a noble metal.
27. The method of claim 18 , wherein the Pt film thickness is in the submonolayer to multilayer range.
28. The method of claim 18 , wherein the negative and positive sweeps between the first and second potentials are repeated a predetermined number of times.