Barium-doped composite electrode materials for fluoride-ion electrochemical cells
The present disclosure relates to a method of making core-shell and yolk-shell nanoparticles, and to electrodes comprising the same. The core-shell and yolk-shell nanoparticles and electrodes comprising them are suitable for use in electrochemical cells, such as fluoride shuttle batteries. The shell may protect the metal core from oxidation, including in an electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, an electrochemically active structure includes a dimensionally changeable active material forming a particle that expands or contracts upon reaction with or release of fluoride ions. One or more particles are at least partially surrounded with a fluoride-conducting encapsulant and optionally one or more voids are formed between the active material and the encapsulant using sacrificial layers or selective etching. The fluoride-conducting encapsulant may comprise one or more metals. When the electrochemically active structures are used in secondary batteries, the presence of voids can accommodate dimensional changes of the active material.
1. An electrochemically active structure, comprising:
a core having an exterior surface,
wherein the core comprises an active material, and
wherein the active material comprises at least one nanoparticle, and
a fluoride-containing shell at least partially surrounding the exterior surface,
wherein the fluoride-containing shell comprises a first metal and a second metal, and the first metal is barium.
2. The electrochemically active structure of claim 1 , wherein the at least one nanoparticle is selected from the group consisting of iron nanoparticles, cobalt nanoparticles, nickel nanoparticles, copper nanoparticles, lead nanoparticles, alkaline earth metal nanoparticles, and combinations thereof.
3. The electrochemically active structure of claim 1 , wherein the at least one nanoparticle comprises copper nanoparticles.
4. The electrochemically active structure of claim 1 , wherein the fluoride-containing shell is directly attached to the core.
5. The electrochemically active structure of claim 1 , wherein the fluoride-containing shell is spaced from the core so as to define a void space therebetween.
6. The electrochemically active structure of claim 1 , wherein the second metal is lanthanum.
7. The electrochemically active structure of claim 6 ,
wherein the barium and the lanthanum are present in a molar ratio of barium to lanthanum of x to 1-x, such that a sum of the moles of barium and the moles of lanthanum in an empirical formula of the fluoride-containing shell is 1, and
wherein x is about 0.03 to about 0.15.
8. The electrochemically active structure of claim 7 , wherein x is about 0.03.
9. An electrochemically active structure, comprising:
a core having an exterior surface,
wherein the core comprises an active material, and
wherein the active material comprises at least one nanoparticle, and
a fluoride-containing shell at least partially surrounding the exterior surface,
wherein the fluoride-containing shell comprises a first metal and a second metal, and the first metal is a divalent or tetravalent metal cation.