Measurement of lead by X-ray fluorescence

1. A method for characterizing a sample with respect to the presence of a specified element, the sample having a surface and characterized by a bulk, the method comprising:

a. illuminating the surface of the sample with x-ray excitation radiation;

b. measuring a first intensity of a first characteristic emission line of the specified element at a first energy;

c. measuring a second intensity of a second characteristic emission line of the specified element at a second energy;

d. comparing the first intensity to the second intensity to establish whether the specified element is disposed above the bulk of the sample;

e. in the case where the specified element is disposed above the bulk of the sample, determining an areal density of the specified element; and

f. in the case where the specified element is within the bulk of the sample, determining a volumetric concentration of the specified element within the sample; and

g. outputting at least one of the areal density and volumetric concentration of the specified element.

2. A method in accordance with claim 1 , further comprising, in the case where the specified element is disposed above the bulk of the sample, comparing the first intensity to the second intensity to establish whether the specified element is contained within a buried layer.

3. A method in accordance with claim 1 , wherein the first and second characteristic emission lines of the specified element are L α and L β emission lines of the specified element.

4. A method in accordance with claim 3 , wherein the specified element is lead.

5. A method in accordance with claim 1 , wherein a ratio of first and second emission line intensities equal to an empirically determined minimum signifies presence of the specified element outside the bulk of the sample.

6. A method in accordance with claim 1 , wherein the specified element is selected from a group of light elements including barium, cadmium and arsenic, and wherein the first and second characteristic emission lines of the specified element are K α and K β emission lines of the specified element.

7. A method in accordance with claim 1 , wherein the specified element is selected from a group of heavy elements including mercury, lead, and uranium, and wherein the first and second characteristic emission lines of the specified element are L α and L β emission lines of the specified element.

8. A method in accordance with claim 1 , further comprising measuring Compton scattering of fluorescence lines in the bulk of the sample for determining absorption in the sample as a function of x-ray energy.

9. An x-ray fluorescence spectrometer, for determining a concentration of a specified element, the spectrometer comprising:

a. a source of x-ray excitation for illuminating a surface of a sample characterized by a bulk;

b. a detector for measuring a first intensity of a first characteristic emission line of the specified element at a first energy and a second intensity of a second characteristic emission line of the specified element at a second energy, and for outputting a detector signal corresponding to each of the first and second intensities;

c. a signal processor for comparing the first intensity to the second intensity to establish whether the specified element is disposed above the bulk of the sample; and

d. an output for providing an areal density of the specified element in the case where the specified element is disposed solely on the surface of the sample, and for outputting a volumetric concentration of the specified element within the sample in the case where the specified element is not disposed solely on the surface of the sample; and

e. a display for outputting the areal density of the specified element in the case where the specified element is disposed above the bulk of the sample, and for outputting the volumetric concentration of the specified element within the sample in the case where the specified element is disposed within the bulk of the sample.

10. A computer program product for use on a computer system for characterizing a sample with respect to the presence of a specified element, the sample having a surface and characterized by a bulk, the computer program product comprising a computer usable medium having computer readable program code thereon, the computer readable program code including:

a. a module for receiving a first intensity of a first characteristic emission line of the specified element at a first energy;

b. a module for receiving a second intensity of a second characteristic emission line of the specified element at a second energy;

c. a module for comparing the first intensity to the second intensity to establish whether the specified element is disposed above the bulk of the sample;

d. a module for

in the case where the specified element is disposed above the bulk of the sample, determining an areal density of the specified element, and

in the case where the specified element is not disposed above the bulk of the sample, determining a volumetric concentration of the specified element within the sample; and

e. a module for outputting at least one of the areal density and volumetric concentration of the specified element.

11. A computer program product in accordance with claim 10 , further comprising, in the case where the specified element is disposed above the bulk of the sample, a module for comparing the first intensity to the second intensity to establish whether the specified element is contained within a buried layer.

12. A computer program product in accordance with claim 10 , wherein the first and second characteristic emission lines of the specified element are L α and L β emission lines of the specified element.

13. A computer program product in accordance with claim 10 , wherein the specified element is lead.

14. A computer program product in accordance with claim 10 , wherein the specified element is selected from a group of light elements including barium, cadmium and arsenic, and wherein the first and second characteristic emission lines of the specified element are K α and K β emission lines of the specified element.

15. A computer program product in accordance with claim 10 , wherein the specified element is selected from a group of heavy elements including mercury, lead, and uranium, and wherein the first and second characteristic emission lines of the specified element are L α and L β emission lines of the specified element.

16. A computer program product in accordance with claim 10 , further comprising module for determining absorption in the sample as a function of x-ray energy.