Systems and methods for structural sensing
Systems and methods related to the determination of one or more mechanical characteristics of a structural element are generally described. In some embodiments, a mechanical characteristic (e.g., a crack, a deformation, an inclusion, etc.) can be determined based at least in part upon the determination of a temperature generated, for example, by passing a current through a network of structures within the structural element. For example, in some embodiments, the structural element can comprise a network of electrically conductive nanostructures and, in some cases, a primary structural material that is not substantially electrically conductive. An electrical current can be passed through the network of electrically conductive nanostructures (e.g., by passing current through an electrical circuit comprising the network of electrically conductive nanostructures). This may result in resistive heating (also known as Joule-effect heating) of the nanostructure network. In some embodiments, a first temperature of the network and/or structural elements can be determined (e.g., via a sensor associated with the electrical circuit). This first temperature can be, in some cases, indicative of a mechanical characteristic of the structural element. In some embodiments, one or more mechanical characteristics of the structural element can be determined based at least in part upon the determination of the first temperature of the structural element.
1. A system, comprising:
a structural element comprising a network of electrically conductive nanostructures substantially uniformly distributed within the bulk of a primary structural material of the structural element;
an electrical circuit comprising at least a portion of the network; and
a sensor constructed and arranged to determine a first temperature of the structural element and/or of the network,
wherein the system is constructed and arranged to pass an electrical current through the electrical circuit.
2. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the first temperature is indicative of a mechanical characteristic of the structural element and/or of the network.
3. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the network of electrically conductive nanostructures comprises a plurality of nanostructures, each of the nanostructures having an aspect ratio of at least 3 and a long axis.
4. A system as in claim 3 , wherein the long axes of the nanostructures are substantially aligned.
5. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the primary structural material comprises a material having an electrical resistivity of at least 100 Ohm·m at 20° C.
6. A system as in claim 5 , wherein the primary structural material comprises at least one of a monomer, a polymer, a fiber, and a ceramic.
7. A system as in claim 5 , wherein the primary structural material has an electrical resistivity of between 100 Ohm m and 1×10 30 Ohm m.
8. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the primary structural material comprises a material that is electrically conductive.
9. A system as in claim 8 , wherein the primary structural material comprises a metal.
10. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the nanostructures comprise nanotubes.
11. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the nanostructures comprise carbon-based nanostructures.
12. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the nanostructures comprise carbon nanotubes.
13. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the nanostructures comprise single-walled carbon nanotubes.
14. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the nanostructures comprise multi-walled carbon nanotubes.
15. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the nanostructures comprise metal nanoparticles.
16. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the nanostructures comprise carbon nanowires.
17. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the nanostructures comprise carbon black.
18. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the nanostructures comprise graphite.
19. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the nanostructures comprise carbon nanofibers.
20. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the nanostructures comprise graphene nanoparticles.
21. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the nanostructures comprise metal nanowires.
22. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the electrically conductive nanostructures have an electrical resistivity of less than 0.1 Ohm m.
23. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the structural element comprises a plurality of electrical contacts to which electrical leads can be applied, and through which electrical current can be passed.
24. A system as in claim 1 , wherein the sensor is constructed and arranged to determine a first temperature of the structural element and/or of the network indicative of resistive heating of the network.
25. A method, comprising:
passing an electrical current through at least a portion of a network of electrically conductive nanostructures substantially uniformly distributed within the bulk of a primary structural material of a structural element;
determining a first temperature of the structural element using a sensor; and
determining a mechanical characteristic of the structural element and/or of the network based at least in part upon the first temperature of the structural element.
26. A method as in claim 25 , wherein determining the mechanical characteristic of the structural element and/or of the network comprises determining the location of the mechanical characteristic.
27. A method as in claim 25 , wherein determining the mechanical characteristic of the structural element and/or of the network comprises determining the size of the mechanical characteristic.
28. A method as in claim 25 , wherein determining the mechanical characteristic of the structural element and/or of the network comprises determining the presence or absence of an elastic deformation.
29. A method as in claim 25 , wherein determining a mechanical characteristic of the structural element and/or of the network comprises determining the presence or absence of a plastic deformation.
30. A method as in claim 25 , wherein determining a mechanical characteristic of the structural element and/or of the network comprises determining the presence or absence of a fracture.
31. A method as in claim 25 , wherein determining a mechanical characteristic of the structural element and/or of the network comprises determining the presence or absence of a dislocation.
32. A method as in claim 25 , wherein determining a mechanical characteristic of the structural element and/or of the network comprises determining the presence or absence of an inclusion.
33. A method as in claim 25 , wherein the mechanical characteristic of the structural element is located on an external surface of the structural element.
34. A method as in claim 25 , wherein the mechanical characteristic of the structural element is located within the bulk of the structural element.
35. A method as in claim 25 , wherein the mechanical characteristic of the structural element has a maximum cross-sectional dimension of less than 100 mm.
36. A method as in claim 25 , wherein the first temperature is at least 0.01° C. higher than an ambient temperature.
37. A method as in claim 25 , wherein the first temperature is produced in the absence of a substantial source of heat external to the network of electrically conductive nanostructures.
38. A method as in claim 25 , wherein the first temperature is produced in the absence of a substantial source of heat external to the structural element.
39. A method as in claim 25 , wherein determining a mechanical characteristic of the structural element comprises comparing the first temperature of the structural element to a second temperature.
40. A method as in claim 39 , wherein the first temperature is determined at a first location on or within the structural element, and the second temperature is determined at a second location on or within a different part of the structural element.
41. A method as in claim 39 , wherein the first and second temperatures are determined at different times.
42. A method as in claim 39 , wherein the second temperature value is determined prior to first use of the structural element.
43. A method as in claim 39 , wherein the second temperature value is determined after use of the structural element.
44. A method as in claim 25 , wherein determining a temperature comprises determining a distribution of multiple temperatures on or within the structural element.
45. A method as in claim 25 , wherein determining a temperature comprises determining a continuous gradient of temperatures across a line or surface on or within the structural element.
46. A method as in claim 25 , wherein determining a temperature comprises determining a discontinuous gradient of temperatures across a line or surface on or within the structural element.
47. A method as in claim 25 , wherein passing an electrical current through the network of electrically conductive nanostructures resistively heats the structural element.
48. A method as in claim 25 , wherein an imaging device is used to determine the first temperature of the structural element.
49. A method as in claim 25 , wherein at least one of a thermographic camera, a thermocouple, a thermal indicator film, a piezoresistive temperature sensor, a piezoelectric temperature sensor, or a thermoelectric temperature sensor is used to determine the first temperature of the structural element.
50. A method as in claim 25 , wherein passing the electrical current through at least a portion of the network of electrically conductive nanostructures comprises establishing a voltage difference of less than 100 Volts across at least a portion of the network of electrically conductive nano structures.
51. A method as in claim 25 , wherein passing an electrical current through at least a portion of the network of electrically conductive nanaostructures comprises applying a first electrical current across a first pair of two locations defining a first direction, and applying a second electrical current across a second pair of two locations defining a second direction.
52. A method as in claim 51 , wherein the first and second electrical currents are applied at different times.
53. A method as in claim 51 , wherein the first and second electrical currents are applied at the same time.
54. A method as in claim 25 , wherein passing the electrical current through at least a portion of the network of electrically conductive nanostructures comprises application of a power of less than 100 Watts.
55. A method as in claim 25 , wherein the electrical current comprises direct current.
56. A method as in claim 25 , wherein the electrical current comprises alternating current.
57. A method as in claim 25 , wherein the electrical current comprises direct current and alternating current.
58. A method as in claim 25 , wherein the electrical current is passed from one end of the structural element to another end of the structural element.
59. A method as in claim 25 , wherein the electrical current is passed through only a portion of the structural element.
60. A method as in claim 25 , wherein determining a mechanical characteristic of the structural element and/or of the network comprises determining a mechanical defect of the structural element and/or of the network.
61. A method, comprising:
passing an electrical current through at least a portion of a network of electrically conductive nanostructures substantially uniformly distributed within the bulk of a primary structural material of a structural element, the primary structural material having an electrical resistivity of at least 100 Ohm·m at 20° C.; and
determining a first temperature of the structural element and/or of the network using a sensor, indicative of resistive heating of the network, thereby determining a mechanical characteristic of the structural element indicative of a mechanical transformation.
62. A method as in claim 61 , wherein determining a mechanical characteristic of the structural element indicative of a mechanical transformation comprises determining a mechanical defect of the structural element.
63. A method, comprising:
passing an electrical current through at least a portion of a structural element formed of a primary structural material having an electrical resistivity of at least 100 Ohm·m at 20° C., wherein the structural element comprises a network of electrically conductive nanostructures substantially uniformly distributed within the bulk of the primary structural material;
determining a first temperature of the structural element using a sensor; and
determining a mechanical characteristic of the structural element indicated by the first temperature of the structural element.
64. A method as in claim 63 , wherein determining a mechanical characteristic of the structural element comprises determining a mechanical defect of the structural element.