Electrochemical energy storage systems and methods

1. A three-dimensional electrode array comprising:

a plurality of plate electrodes, wherein each plate electrode independently comprises a current collector, and wherein each plate electrode includes an array of apertures, wherein the plate electrodes are arranged in a substantially parallel orientation such that each aperture of an individual plate electrode is aligned along an alignment axis passing through an aperture of each of all other plate electrodes, and

a plurality of rod electrodes, wherein the plurality of rod electrodes are not in physical contact with the plurality of plate electrodes, and wherein the plurality of rod electrodes are arranged such that each rod electrode extends a length along an alignment axis passing through an aperture of each plate electrode, such that each rod electrode individually extends through the plurality of plate electrodes; and

wherein a first surface area includes a cumulative surface area of the plurality of plate electrodes, wherein a second surface area includes a cumulative surface area of each aperture array and wherein a third surface area includes a cumulative surface area of each of the plurality of rod electrodes; and

wherein each of the plurality of plate electrodes has one or more lateral dimensions selected over the range of 20 nm to 20 m and a thickness dimension selected over the range of 20 nm to 5 cm; wherein a distance between each of the plurality of plate electrodes is selected over the range of 10 nm to 5 cm;

wherein each of the plurality of rod electrodes has a length selected over the range of 50 nm to 20 m and a diameter or a lateral dimension selected over the range of 9 nm to 20 cm; and wherein each aperture has a diameter or a lateral dimension selected over the range of 10 nm to 20 cm;

wherein the electrode array further comprises an electrolyte separating each of the plate electrodes from other plate electrodes and from the rod electrodes.

2. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein the plurality of rod electrodes are not in electrical contact with the plurality of plate electrodes.

3. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein the three-dimensional electrode array is a component of a device selected from the group consisting of: a primary electrochemical cell, a secondary electrochemical cell, a fuel cell, a capacitor, a supercapacitor, a flow battery, a metal-air battery and a semi-solid battery.

4. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein a ratio of the second surface area to the first surface area is selected over the range of 1 to 5.

5. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein a ratio of the second surface area to the third surface area is selected over the range of 0.2 to 5.

6. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , comprising 5 or more plate electrodes and 50 or more rod electrodes.

7. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein the three-dimensional electrode array is a component of an electrochemical cell and wherein the electrochemical cell is selected from the group consisting of: a primary cell, a secondary cell, a lead-acid cell, a lithium cell, a lithium ion cell, a zinc-carbon cell, an alkaline cell, a nickel-cadmium cell, a nickel metal hydride cell, a silver oxide cell, a sodium sulfur cell, a solid electrochemical cell a fluid electrochemical cell, a flow battery, a fuel cell, a semi-solid battery and a metal-air battery.

8. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein the three-dimensional electrode array is a component of a capacitor or a supercapacitor, and wherein the three-dimensional electrode array further comprises a dielectric material positioned between each of the plurality of plate electrodes and each of the plurality of rod electrodes.

9. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein each of the plurality of rod electrodes comprises a current collector.

10. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 9 , wherein one or more current collectors are positioned in thermal communication with a heat sink or a heat source.

11. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 9 , wherein each current collector comprises a heat pipe.

12. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 9 , wherein each current collector is a structural element of the three-dimensional electrode array or provides structural support to the three-dimensional electrode array.

13. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 9 , wherein each of the plurality of plate electrodes comprises an internal current collector.

14. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , further comprising one or more heat transfer rods arranged such that each heat transfer rod extends a length along an alignment axis passing through an aperture of each plate electrode and wherein at least one of the one or more heat transfer rods are positioned in thermal communication with a heat sink or a heat source.

15. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , further comprising an inert coating on a surface of each aperture, thereby preventing an oxidation reaction or a reduction reaction from occurring at plate electrode apertures at positions covered by the inert coating.

16. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein at least one rod electrode comprises a composite rod electrode comprising a rod electrode inner core and a rod electrode outer shell surrounding the rod electrode inner core and wherein the rod electrode inner core comprises a first electrode material, and wherein the rod electrode outer shell comprises a second electrode material different from the first electrode material, and wherein at least one plate electrode comprises the first electrode material.

17. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein at least one plate electrode comprises a composite plate electrode comprising a plate electrode inner layer and a plate electrode outer shell surrounding the plate electrode inner layer and wherein the plate electrode inner layer comprises a first electrode material, and wherein the plate electrode outer shell comprises a second electrode material different from the first electrode material, and wherein at least one rod electrode comprises the first electrode material.

18. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein at least one rod electrode comprises a group of rod electrodes, wherein the group of rod electrodes is arranged such that the group of rod electrodes extends a length along an alignment axis passing through an aperture of each plate electrode.

19. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein the three-dimensional electrode array comprises a component of a fuel cell and wherein the three-dimensional electrode array further comprises a fuel fluid positioned in contact with one or more plate electrodes, one or more rod electrodes or both one or more plate electrodes and one or more rod electrodes and wherein the three-dimensional electrode array further comprises an oxygen containing fluid positioned in contact with one or more plate electrodes, one or more rod electrodes or both one or more plate electrodes and one or more rod electrodes.

20. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein the three-dimensional electrode array comprises a component of a metal-air battery and wherein at least one rod electrode comprises a metal or at least one plate electrode comprises a metal or both at least one rod electrode and at least one plate electrode comprise a metal, and wherein the three-dimensional electrode array further comprises an oxygen containing fluid positioned in contact with one or more plate electrodes, one or more rod electrodes or both one or more plate electrodes and one or more rod electrodes.

21. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein at least one rod electrode comprises a porous rod or wherein at least one rod electrode comprises a hollow rod electrode with porous walls.

22. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein the three-dimensional electrode array comprises a component of a flow battery and wherein the three-dimensional electrode array further comprises a plurality of tubes, wherein the plurality of tubes are arranged such that each tube extends a length along an alignment axis passing through an aperture of each plate electrode and wherein at least one rod electrode is positioned within each tube.

23. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 22 , wherein a space within each tube between an inner wall of the tube and a surface of a rod electrode is filled with a fluid, an electrolyte, an aqueous solution or a gas.

24. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 23 , wherein the fluid, electrolyte, aqueous solution or gas flows along an alignment axis passing through an aperture of each plate electrode.

25. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 22 , wherein a space between an outer wall of each tube and wall of one or more apertures is filled with a fluid, an electrolyte, an aqueous solution or a gas.

26. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 25 , wherein the fluid, electrolyte, aqueous solution or gas flows along an alignment axis passing through an aperture of each plate electrode.

27. A method of making an electrode array, the method comprising the steps of:

providing a plurality of plate electrodes, wherein each plate electrode independently comprises a current collector, and wherein each plate electrode includes an array of apertures;

arranging the plurality of plate electrodes in a substantially parallel orientation such that the each aperture of an individual plate electrode is aligned along an alignment axis passing through an aperture of each of all other plate electrodes;

providing a plurality of rod electrodes;

and arranging the plurality of rod electrodes such that the plurality of rod electrode are not in physical contact with the plurality of plate electrodes and such that each rod electrode extends a length along an alignment axis passing through an aperture of each plate electrode and such that each rod electrode individually extends through the plurality of plate electrodes.

28. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein the plurality of plate electrodes comprise one of a cathode material or an anode material and the plurality of rod electrodes comprise the other of a cathode material or an anode material.

29. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein at least one of the rod electrodes comprises a first active material and at least one of the rod electrodes comprises a second active material different from the first active material.

30. The three-dimensional electrode array of claim 1 , wherein at least one of the plate electrodes comprises a first active material and at least one of the plate electrodes comprises a second active material different from the first active material.