Electrochemical energy storage devices
An energy storage device includes a cathodic material in an activated state; and an anodic material in an activated state; wherein: the cathodic material is a viologen covalently attached to, or confined within, a first polymer matrix, the first polymer matrix is configured to prevent or minimize substantial diffusion of the cathodic material in the activated state; and the anodic material is a phenazine, a phenothiazine, a triphenodithiazine, a carbazole, a indolocarbazole, a biscarbazole, or a ferrocene covalently attached to, or confined within, a second polymer matrix, the second polymer matrix is configured to prevent or minimize substantial diffusion of the anodic material in the activated state.
1. An electrochromic device comprising:
a cathodic material covalently attached to, or confined within, a first polymer matrix; and
an anodic compound polymerized into a second polymer matrix;
wherein:
the cathodic material is a viologen;
the anodic compound is a phenazine, a bisphenazine, a phenothiazine, a bisphenothiazine, a triphenodithiazine, a bis(triphenodithiazine), a carbazole, a indolocarbazole, a biscarbazole, or a ferrocene;
the electrochromic device exhibits a high transmission state at short circuit and a low transmission state upon application of an electric potential;
the high transmission state is at least 5 times greater than the low transmission state; and
the electrochromic device is configured to maintain a transmission percentage within 20% of the low transmission state for at least 5 hours at open circuit after application of a potential sufficient to reach to the low transmissions state.
2. The electrochromic device of claim 1 , wherein the anodic compound is represented by:
wherein:
E is S or NR 10 ,
R 1 and R 10 are individually an alkyl group interrupted by at least one ammonium group;
R 2 -R 9 are individually H, F, Cl, Br, I, CN, OR 11 , SR 11 , NO 2 , alkyl, alkoxy, aryl, amino, or any two adjacent groups of R 2 -R 9 may join to form a monocyclic, polycyclic, or heterocyclic group;
each R 11 is individually H or alkyl;
R 12 is an alkylene group; and
with the proviso that the anodic material contain at least one hydroxyl, hydroxyl substituted alkyl, amine, or amine substituted alkyl group.
3. The electrochromic device of claim 2 , wherein E is NR 10 and R 2 -R 9 are H or OR 11 .
4. The electrochromic device of claim 2 , wherein the anodic compound is represented by:
wherein:
each R 13 is individually H or alkyl;
R 14 is an alkyl group interrupted by at least one ammonium group.
5. The electrochromic device of claim 4 , wherein R 1 and R 14 are represented by:
R 15 -R 18 are individually H or alkyl;
n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12;
n′ is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12; and
x is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12.
6. The electrochromic device of claim 5 , wherein n is 4, x is 2, and n′ is 11.
7. The electrochromic device of claim 1 , further comprising an electrolyte comprising a solvent and a metal salt or an ammonium salt.