Electrocaloric heat transfer system

1. A heat transfer system, comprising an electrocaloric material comprising:

(1) a copolymer of a monomer mixture comprising:

(i) vinylidene fluoride,

(ii) an addition polymerization monomer selected from tetrafluoroethylene, or a monomer smaller than trifluoroethylene, and

(iii) a halogenated addition polymerization monomer different than (ii) that is larger than vinylidene fluoride, and

(2) an additive comprising a nucleating agent having a polar surface charge;

electrodes disposed on opposite surfaces of the electrocaloric material; a first thermal flow path between the electrocaloric material and a heat sink; a second thermal flow path between the electrocaloric material and a heat source; and an electric power source configured to provide voltage to the electrodes; wherein the nucleating agent includes positive nucleating agents or negative nucleating agents; wherein positive nucleating agents include tetrabutylphosphonium hexafluorophosphate, ethyltriphenylphosphonium bromide, n-heptyltriphenylphosphonium bromide, n-acetonylpyridinium bromide, 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bromide, or triphenylsulfonium tetrafluoroborate; and wherein negative nucleating agents include sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium n-tridecyl sulfate, or 1-naphthyl phosphate monosodium salt monohydrate.

2. The heat transfer system of claim 1 , wherein the halogenated addition polymerization monomer (iii) comprises chlorofluoroethylene or a halogenated addition polymerization monomer larger than chlorofluoroethylene.

3. The heat transfer system of claim 2 , wherein the halogenated addition polymerization monomer (iii) comprises chlorofluoroethylene.

4. The heat transfer system of claim 1 , wherein the additive comprises a molecular nucleating agent.

5. The heat transfer system of claim 1 , wherein the additive comprises a nucleating agent comprising solid particles having a polar surface charge.

6. The heat transfer system of claim 5 , wherein the solid particles comprise a surface treatment that provides a polar surface charge.

7. The heat transfer system of claim 1 , wherein the additive comprises a nucleating agent having a positive surface charge.

8. The heat transfer system of claim 1 , wherein the additive comprises a nucleating agent having a negative surface charge.

9. The heat transfer system of claim 1 , further comprising means for selectively directing transfer of heat energy from the electrocaloric material to the heat sink along the first thermal flow path, or from the heat source to the electrocaloric material along the second thermal flow path.

10. The heat transfer system of claim 1 , wherein the electrocaloric material comprises a compositional variation in the concentration or the composition of the additive throughout the thickness of the material between the electrodes, which variation is configured as a continuous gradient, discrete layers of different composition, or as discrete filaments of different composition.

11. A method of making an electrocaloric element, comprising

forming and solidifying a film of a fluid composition comprising an electrocaloric copolymer and an additive comprising a nucleating agent having a polar surface charge, the electrocaloric copolymer formed from monomers comprising

(i) vinylidene fluoride,

(ii) an addition polymerization monomer selected from tetrafluoroethylene, or a monomer smaller than trifluoroethylene, and

(iii) a halogenated addition polymerization monomer different than (ii) that is

larger than vinylidene fluoride, and disposing the film between electrodes; and wherein the nucleating agent includes positive nucleating agents or negative nucleating agents; wherein positive nucleating agents include tetrabutylphosphonium hexafluorophosphate, ethyltriphenylphosphonium bromide, n-heptyltriphenylphosphonium bromide, n-acetonylpyridinium bromide, 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bromide, or triphenylsulfonium tetrafluoroborate; and wherein negative nucleating agents include sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium n-tridecyl sulfate, or 1-naphthyl phosphate monosodium salt monohydrate.

12. The method of claim 11 , wherein the halogenated addition polymerization monomer (iii) comprises chlorofluoroethylene or a halogenated addition polymerization monomer larger than chlorofluoroethylene.

13. The method of claim 11 , wherein the halogenated addition polymerization monomer (iii) comprises chlorofluoroethylene.

14. The method of claim 11 , wherein forming and solidifying the film comprises dissolving or dispersing the copolymer in a liquid composition comprising an organic solvent, casting a film of the liquid composition on a substrate, evaporating the solvent to solidify the film, and removing the film from the substrate.

15. The method of claim 11 , wherein the additive is dissolved or dispersed in a liquid composition, or a substrate surface comprises the additive, or the additive is dissolved or dispersed in the liquid composition and the substrate surface comprises a nucleating agent.

16. The method of claim 11 , wherein forming and solidifying the film comprises forming a thermoplastic fluid melt comprising the copolymer, forming a film of the thermoplastic fluid melt, and cooling to solidify the film.

17. The method of claim 16 , wherein the additive is dissolved or dispersed in the thermoplastic fluid melt, or the thermoplastic fluid melt is cast onto a substrate comprising the additive, or the additive is dissolved or dispersed in the thermoplastic fluid melt and the thermoplastic fluid melt is cast onto a substrate comprising the additive.

18. A method of manufacturing a heat transfer system comprising:

manufacturing an electrocaloric element according to the method of claim 11 ; and

providing a heat flow path between the electrocaloric element and a heat source or a heat sink for controlled heat transfer between the electrocaloric element and the heat source or heat sink.