IP Library › Granted Patent US 12,594,526
Granted Patent B2
US 12,594,526 · App. 17/918,948 · Granted Apr 7, 2026

Forward osmosis filtration cell, and methods of filtering water with a forward osmosis filtration cell

Inventors: Logan Werner (Burlington, VT); Appala Raju Badireddy (Burlington, VT); Richard Grunert (Burlington, VT)
Assignee: University of Vermont and State Agricultural College
B01D61/0022B01D61/0023B01D65/08C02F1/445B01D2313/345B01D2313/365B01D2313/54B01D2315/10B01D2321/22C02F2103/001C02F2103/003C02F2103/10C02F2103/20C02F2303/14C02F2303/20
View Patent ↗
Loading inventors, assignments & file history…
Monitor This Case
Get email alerts when status or documents change.
Order Certified Copies
Most orders are placed with the USPTO same day — all within 24 business hours.
Order via The Patent Place →
Pre-filled with this patent's details
Quick Facts
Patent No.
US 12,594,526
App. No.
17/918,948
Granted
Apr 7, 2026
Kind
B2
Abstract

A forward osmosis filtration cell is provided which includes a fluid passageway and a forward osmosis filtration membrane positioned within the passageway. The filtration membrane divides the fluid passageway into two chambers, a first chamber configured to hold a draw solution, and a second chamber configured to hold a feed solution. The filtration cell further includes a first electrode positioned in the first chamber, and a second electrode positioned in the second chamber. The first and second electrodes are configured to apply an electric field across the filtration membrane to prevent fouling on the filtration membrane. A method of using a forward osmosis filtration cell in a water treatment system, and a method of retrofitting a water treatment system with first and second electrodes are also provided.

Claims (29)

1 . A forward osmosis filtration cell comprising:

a first plate having a concavity forming a first chamber configured to hold a draw solution, the first plate having an inlet port and an outlet port for the first chamber;

a second plate having a concavity forming a second chamber configured to hold a feed solution, the second plate having an inlet port and an outlet port for the second chamber, wherein the second plate is stacked with the first plate;

a forward osmosis filtration membrane positioned between the first and second plates, the filtration membrane dividing the first chamber from the second chamber;

a first electrode positioned in the first chamber;

a second electrode positioned in the second chamber, and

wherein the first electrode and the second electrode are both spaced apart from the filtration membrane and configured to apply an electric field across the filtration membrane to prevent fouling on the filtration membrane.

2 . The forward osmosis filtration cell of claim 1 , further comprising an alternating-current (AC) power source configured to apply the electric field across the filtration membrane.

3 . The forward osmosis filtration cell of claim 1 , wherein the first and second electrodes are configured to apply a continuous electric field across the filtration membrane to prevent fouling on the filtration membrane.

4 . The forward osmosis filtration cell of claim 1 , wherein the first and second electrodes are configured to apply a pulsed electric field across the filtration membrane to prevent fouling on the filtration membrane.

5 . The forward osmosis filtration cell of claim 1 , wherein the first electrode extends substantially parallel to the filtration membrane, and wherein the second electrode extends substantially parallel to the filtration membrane.

6 . The forward osmosis filtration cell of claim 1 , wherein the first and the second electrodes are made from carbon paper.

7 . The forward osmosis filtration cell of claim 1 , wherein the first electrode is positioned across a bottom surface of the cavity in the first plate, and wherein the first plate includes an opening in the cavity for a wire to couple the first electrode to a power source.

8 . The forward osmosis filtration cell of claim 7 , wherein the second electrode is positioned across a surface of the cavity in the second plate, and wherein the second plate includes an opening in the cavity for a wire to couple the second electrode to a power source.

9 . The forward osmosis filtration cell of claim 8 , wherein the first electrode is made from a carbon paper material glued to the bottom surface of the first chamber, and the second electrode is made from a carbon paper material glued to the bottom surface of the second chamber.

10 . The forward osmosis filtration cell of claim 1 , wherein the second plate is substantially identical to the first plate.

11 . A method of using a forward osmosis filtration cell to filter water in a water treatment system, the method comprising:

providing a forward osmosis filtration cell comprising:

a first plate having a concavity forming a first chamber configured to hold a draw solution, the first plate having an inlet port and an outlet port for the first chamber;

a second plate having a concavity forming a second chamber configured to hold a feed solution, the second plate having an inlet port and an outlet port for the second chamber, wherein the second plate is stacked with the first plate;

a forward osmosis filtration membrane positioned between the first and second plates, the filtration membrane dividing the first chamber from the second chamber;

a first electrode positioned in the first chamber;

a second electrode positioned in the second chamber, and

wherein the first electrode and the second electrode are both spaced apart from the filtration membrane and configured to apply an electric field across the filtration membrane to prevent fouling on the filtration membrane;

flowing a draw solution into the first chamber;

flowing a feed solution into the second chamber; and

generating an electric field across the filtration membrane with a first electrode positioned in the first chamber and a second electrode positioned in the second chamber to prevent fouling on the membrane.

12 . The method of claim 11 , wherein the generating an electric field across the filtration membrane included pulsing the electric field across the filtration membrane with the first electrode and the second electrode to intermittently generate the electric field across the filtration membrane.

13 . The method of claim 12 , wherein the pulsing the electric field across the filtration membrane includes generating the electric field across the filtration membrane for at least two minutes before turning off the electric field.

Assignments (1)
ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNOR'S INTEREST Recorded Feb 16, 2023
From: WERNER, LOGAN; BADIREDDY, APPALA RAJU; GRUNERT, RICHARD
To: UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT AND STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
Reel/Frame 062719/0854 →
Continuity (2)
Provisional Application 63011495 · Apr 17, 2020
Related Publication 20230233994A1 · Jul 27, 2023
References Cited (129)
US 1162213A · Bloom · 1915 [cited by applicant]
US 3945926A · Kesting · 1976 [cited by applicant]
US 5393421A · Ohe et al. · 1995 [cited by applicant]
US 5554013A · Owens et al. · 1996 [cited by applicant]
US 5932185A · Pekala · 1999 [cited by examiner]
US 8148594B2 · Denton et al. · 2012 [cited by applicant]
US 9140412B2 · Stefanini et al. · 2015 [cited by applicant]
US 9248405B2 · McGinnis et al. · 2016 [cited by applicant]
US 9901881B2 · Coster et al. · 2018 [cited by applicant]
US 20060144789A1 · Cath · 2006 [cited by examiner]
US 20070029261A1 · Chew · 2007 [cited by applicant]
US 20090065444A1 · Alley · 2009 [cited by applicant]
US 20120234694A1 · Vecitis et al. · 2012 [cited by applicant]
US 20120273359A1 · Suss et al. · 2012 [cited by applicant]
US 20120312687A1 · Miller · 2012 [cited by applicant]
US 20130153426A1 · Sun et al. · 2013 [cited by applicant]
US 20140106007A1 · Shanahan · 2014 [cited by examiner]
US 20150075992A1 · Cui et al. · 2015 [cited by applicant]
US 20160250404A1 · Simonis · 2016 [cited by applicant]
US 20190185351A1 · Huang et al. · 2019 [cited by applicant]
US 20210317012A1 · Badireddy et al. · 2021 [cited by applicant]
US 20210395117A1 · Parthasarathy · 2021 [cited by applicant]
AU 2005317945B2 · 2006 [cited by applicant]
CN 108862490A · 2018 [cited by applicant]
SE 501396C · 1995 [cited by applicant]
WO 2011063458A1 · 2011 [cited by applicant]
WO WO2018001743A1 · 2018 [cited by examiner]
WO 2020051403A1 · 2020 [cited by applicant]
Fan, et al., “Highly Permeable Thin-Film Composite Forward Osmosis Membrane Based on Carbon Nanotube Hollow Fiber Scaffold with Electrically Enhanced Fouling Resistance,” Environ. Sci. & Tech., 52:1444-52 (Year: 2018). [cited by examiner]
Li, et al., “Membrane fouling mitigation by coupling applied electric field in membrane system: Configuration, mechanism and performance,” Electrochimica Acta, 287:124-34 (Year: 2018). [cited by examiner]
Akamatsu, et al., “Development of a novel fouling suppression system in membrane bioreactors using an intermittent electric field,” Water Research, 44:825-30 (Year: 2010). [cited by examiner]
National Minerals Information Center, “Phosphate Rock Statistics and Information” USGS (2021) Accessed Oct. 21, 2024 via Internet Archive: “https://web.archive.org/web/20211226065406/https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nationa… [cited by applicant]
Ohlinger, K.N. et al., “Predicting struvite formation in digestion.” Water Research 32, 3607-3614 (1998). [cited by applicant]
Page, S.E. et al., “Terephthalate as a probe for photochemically generated hydroxyl radical.” Journal of Environmental Monitoring 12(9), 1658-1665 (2010). [cited by applicant]
Park, N., et al. “Critical conditions of struvite growth and recovery using MgO in pilot scale crystallization plant.” Water Science and Technology 81.12 (2020): 2511-2521. [cited by applicant]
Pasquini, L.M. et al., “Impact of surface functionalization on bacterial cytotoxicity of single-walled carbon nanotubes.” Environmental Science & Technology 46(11), 6297-6305 (2012). [cited by applicant]
Patel, Jugal K. et al., “Miles of algae covering Lake Erie.” New York Times 4 (2017). [cited by applicant]
Perreault, F., et al. “Antimicrobial properties of graphene oxide nanosheets: Why size matters.” ACS Nano 9(7), 7226-7236 (2015). [cited by applicant]
Piyadasa, C., et al. “Antimicrobial effects of pulsed electromagnetic fields from commercially available water treatment devices—controlled studies under static and flow conditions.” Journal of Chemical Technology and B… [cited by applicant]
Piyadasa, C., et al. “The effect of electromagnetic fields, from two commercially available water treatment devices, on bacterial culturability.” Water Science and Technology 73(6), 1371-1377 (2016). [cited by applicant]
Porcelli, N. et al., “Chemical cleaning of potable water membranes: A review.” Separation and Purification Technology 71(2), 137-143 (2010). [cited by applicant]
Profio, G.D. et al., “Membrane Crystallization Technology.” Comprehensive Membrane Science and Engineering. Drioli, E. and Giorno, L., pp. 21-44, Elsevier (2010). [cited by applicant]
Programme, U.N.D. “Human Development Report 2006: Beyond Scarcity” Power, Poverty and the Global Water Crisis. New York (2006). [cited by applicant]
Prywer, J. et al. “Struvite Grown in Gel, Its Crystal Structure at 90K and Thermoanalytical Study.” Crystal; 2019;9(2);89. [cited by applicant]
Prywer, J. et al. “Unique surface and internal structure of struvite crystals formed by Proteus mirabilis.” Urol. Res. 2012;40(6);699-707. [cited by applicant]
Rouina, M. et al., “Effect of electromagnetic field on membrane fouling in reverse osmosis process.” Desalination 395, 41-45 (2016). [cited by applicant]
Ruiz-Garcia, A. et al., “80,000h operational experience and performance analysis of a brackish water reverse osmosis desalination plant. Assessment of membrane replacement cost.” Desalination 3 7 5, 81-8 8 (2015). [cited by applicant]
Sablani, S.S. et al., “Concentration polarization in ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis: a critical review.” Desalination 141(3), 269-289 (2001). [cited by applicant]
Saha, S.K. et al., “Determination of the concentrations of oligosaccharides, complex type carbohydrates, and glycoproteins using the phenol sulfuric-acid method.” Carbohydrate Research 254, 157-167 (1994). [cited by applicant]
Saulis, G. et al., Changes of the solution pH due to exposure by high-voltage electric pulses. Bioelectrochemistry 2005, 67 (1), 101-108. [cited by applicant]
Shannon, M.A. et al., “Science and technology for water purification in the coming decades.” Nature 452,301 (2008). [cited by applicant]
Sharp, R. et al., A theoretical and practical evaluation of struvite control and recovery. Water environment research 2013, 85 (8), 675-686. [cited by applicant]
Shirazi, S. et al., “Inorganic fouling of pressure-driven membrane processes—A critical review.” Desalination 250(1 ), 236-248 (2010). [cited by applicant]
Song, L.F. et al., “A new normalization method for determination of colloidal fouling potential in membrane processes.” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 271(2), 426-433 (2004). [cited by applicant]
Sterlitech Corporation “Electric Field-Assisted Cross Flow Cells.” https://www.sterlitech.com/electric-field-assisted-cross-flow-cell.html 2 pgs. [cited by applicant]
Tay, KG et al. “A more effective method for fouling characterization in a full-scale reverse Osmosis process.” Desalination 177 (2005) 95-107. [cited by applicant]
Tessaro, L.W.E. et al., “Bacterial growth rates are influenced by cellular characteristics of individual species when immersed in electromagnetic fields.” Microbiological Research 172, 26-33 (2015). [cited by applicant]
Tijing, L.D., et al., “Effect of high-frequency electric fields on calcium carbonate scaling.” Desalination 279(1), 47-5 (2011). [cited by applicant]
Torogomyan, H. et al., “Bactericidal effects of low-intensity extremely high frequency electromagnetic field: an overview with phenomenon, mechanisms, targets and consequences.” Critical Reviews in Microbiology 39(1), 1… [cited by applicant]
Torogomyan, H. et al., “The enhanced effects of antibiotics irradiated of extremely high frequency electromagnetic field on [cited by applicant]
Village of Essex Junction, The, et al., “Vermont's Phosphorus Innovation Challenge.” https://agriculture.vermont.gov/sites/agriculture/files/documents/Essex%20Jct%20UVM% 20CSWD%20VT%20Phosphorus%201nnovation%20Challenge… [cited by applicant]
Wiesner, M.R. et al., “Peer Reviewed: The promise of membrane technology.” Environmental Science & Technology 33(17), 360A-366A (1999). [cited by applicant]
Xiao, K., et al. “Electronic transport characteristic of an individual CN x/C nanotube Schottky junction.” Applied Physics A 83 (2006): 53-56. [cited by applicant]
Xing, X.K. et al., “Investigation on the electromagnetic anti fouling technology for scale prevention.” Chemical Engineering & Technology 28(12), 1540-1545 (2005). [cited by applicant]
Zhang, P. et al., “Effect of Rotating-Electromagnetic Field on Scaling in Hard Water.” pp. 614-617 (2009). [cited by applicant]
Zhang, R. et al., “Antifouling membranes for sustainable water purification: strategies and mechanisms.” Chemical Society Reviews 45(21), 5888-592 (2016). [cited by applicant]
Zhang, W.X. et al., “A review on flux decline control strategies in pressure-driven membrane processes.” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 54(11 ), 2843-2861 (2015). [cited by applicant]
Zhou, M.J. et al., “A stable nonfluorescent derivative of resorufin for the fluorometric determination of trace hydrogen peroxide: Applications in detecting the activity of phagocyte NADPH oxidase and other oxidases.” A… [cited by applicant]
Zumbusch et al, “Use of alternating electrical fields as anti-fouling strategy in ultrafiltration of biological suspensions—Introduction of a new experimental procedure for crossflow filtration”, Feb. 2, 1998, Journal o… [cited by applicant]
U.S. Appl. No. 18/721,969, filed Jun. 20, 2024. [cited by applicant]
Fan, et al. “Highly permeable thin-film composite forward osmosis membrane based on carbon nanotube hollow fiber scaffold with electrically enhanced fouling resistance.” Environmental science & technology 52.3 (Feb. 6, … [cited by applicant]
Ibrar et al. “A Review of Fouling Mechanisms, Control Strategies and Real-Time Fouling Monitoring Techniques in Forward Osmosis” Water 2019, 11, 695. [cited by applicant]
International Search Report and Written Opinion from the International Searching Authority dated Sep. 9, 2021 from corresponding International Patent Application No. PCT/US 21/26962 Filed on Apr. 13, 2021. [cited by applicant]
Li, et al. “Membrane fouling mitigation by coupling applied electric field in membrane system: Configuration, mechanism and performance.” Electrochimica Acta 287 (Oct. 10, 2018): 124-134. [cited by applicant]
Liu, et al. “An Effective Design of Electrically Conducting Thin-Film Composite (TFC) Membranes for Bio and Organic Fouling Control in Forward Osmosis (FO)” Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 10596-10605. [cited by applicant]
Lu et al. “When Bioelectrochemical Systems Meet Forward Osmosis: Accomplishing Wastewater Treatment and Reuse through Synergy” Water 2015, 7, 38-50. [cited by applicant]
Motsa, et al. “Organic fouling in forward osmosis membranes: The role of feed solution chemistry and membrane structural properties.” Journal of Membrane Science 460 (Jun. 15, 2014): 99-109. [cited by applicant]
Zhang et al. “Integrating Forward Osmosis into Microbial Fuel Cells for Wastewater Treatment, Water Extraction and Bioelectricity Generation” Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 6690-6696. [cited by applicant]
Abdel-Aal, E. et al., New findings about nucleation and crystal growth of reverse osmosis desalination scales with and without inhibitor. Crystal Growth & Design 2015, 15 (10), 5133-5137. [cited by applicant]
Alexander, L. F. et al., Application of electric fields for controlling crystallization. CrystEngComm 2019, 21 (34), 5014-5031. [cited by applicant]
An, R. et al., Solution pH change in non-uniform alternating current electric fields at frequencies above the electrode charging frequency. Biomicrofluidics 2014, 8 (6), 064126. [cited by applicant]
Anderson, et al., “Precipitation and Dissolution Processes.” Water Quality Engineering: Physical and Chemical Treatment Processes. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 379-434, (2013). [cited by applicant]
Appiani, E. et al. Aqueous singlet oxygen reaction kinetics of furfuryl alcohol: effect of temperature, pH, and salt content.: Environmental Science-Processes & Impacts 19(4), 507-516 (2017). [cited by applicant]
Arnal, J.M. et al., “Expanding Issue in Desalination.” Ning, R.Y. (ed), pp. 63-84, InTech. (2011). [cited by applicant]
Badireddy, A.R., et al., “Lipophilic nano-bismuth inhibits bacterial growth, attachment, and biofilm formation.” Surface Innovations 1(3), 181-189 (2013). [cited by applicant]
Badireddy, A.R., et al., “Bacteriophage inactivation by UV—A illuminated fullerenes: Role of nanoparticle-virus association and biological targets.” Environ. Sci. Technol. (2012). [cited by applicant]
Badireddy, A.R., et al., “Bismuth dimercaptopropanol (BisBAL) inhibits the expression of extracellular polysaccharides and proteins by Brevundimonas diminuta: Implications for membrane microfiltration.” Biotechnology an… [cited by applicant]
Badireddy, A.R., et al., “Inactivation of bacteriophages via photosensitization of fullerol nanoparticles.” Environmental Science and Technology 41, 6627-6632 (2007). [cited by applicant]
Badireddy, A.R., et al., “Role of extracellular polymeric substances in bioflocculation of activated sludge microorganisms under glucose-controlled conditions.” Water Research 44(15), 4505-4516 (2010). [cited by applicant]
Badireddy, A.R., et al., “Spectroscopic characterization of extracellular polymeric substances from [cited by applicant]
Bagheri, M. et al., “Critical review of fouling mitigation strategies in membrane bioreactors treating water and wastewater.” Bioresource Technology 258, 318-334 (2018). [cited by applicant]
Benjamin, Mark et al., “Membrane Processes.” Water Quality Engineering: Physical/Chemical Treatment Processes, First Edition. Chapter 15, pp. 731-845. [cited by applicant]
Bhuiyan, M. I. H. et al., Nucleation and growth kinetics of struvite in a fluidized bed reactor. Journal of Crystal Growth 2008, 310 (6), 1187-1194. [cited by applicant]
Bird, R.B., et al., “Temperature Distributions in Turbulent Flow.” Transport Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (2002). Chapter 13. [cited by applicant]
Bowen, W.R., et al., “Dynamic cross flow ultrafiltration of colloids: a deposition probability cake filtration approach.” Separation and Purification Technology 24(1-2), 297-308 (2001). [cited by applicant]
Bowen, W.R., et al., “Dynamic ultrafiltration model for charged colloidal dispersion—A Wigner-Seitz cell approach.” Chemical Engineering Science 50(11), 1707-1736 (1995). [cited by applicant]
Bowen, W.R., et al., “The osmotic pressure of electrostatically stabilized colloidal dispersions.” Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 184(1), 241-250 (1996). [cited by applicant]
Chu, C.H. et al., “Photochemical and nonphotochemical transformations of cysteine with dissolved organic matter.” Environmental Science & Technology 50(12), pp. 6363-6373.(2016). [cited by applicant]
Cogan, N.G. et al., “Optimal backwashing in dead-end bacterial microfiltration with irreversible attachment mediated by extracellular polymeric substances production.” Journal of Membrane Science 520, 337-344. (2016). [cited by applicant]
Combe, Liv. “How Your Body Uses Phosphorus.” Healthline, Healthline Media, Nov. 21, 2014, Accessed Jul. 23, 2024. URL: www.healthline.com/health/how-your-body-uses-phosphorus#phosphorus-in-the-body. [cited by applicant]
Enevoldsen, A.D. et al., “Electro-ultrafiltration of industrial enzyme solutions.” Journal of Membrane Science 299(1-2), 28-37 (2007). [cited by applicant]
Erdim, E. et al., “Characterizing reactive oxygen generation and bacterial inactivation by a zerovalent iron-fullerene nano-composite device at neutral pH under UV-A illumination.” Journal of Hazardous Materials 283 (20… [cited by applicant]
Fojt, L. et al. “Effect of electromagnetic fields on the denitrification activity of Paracoccus denitrificans.” Bioelectrochemistry 70(1 ), 91-95 (2007). [cited by applicant]
Formoso, P. et al., “Electro⋅conductive membranes for permeation enhancement and fouling mitigation: A short review.” Membranes 7(3), 24 (2017). [cited by applicant]
Gabrielyan, L. et al., “Biohydrogen production by purple non-sulfur bacteria Rhodobacter sphaeroides: Effect of low-intensity electromagnetic irradiation.” Journal of Photochemistry and Photo biology B: Biology 162, 592… [cited by applicant]
Gad, A. et al., “Effect of electric pulse parameters on releasing metallic particles from stainless steel electrodes during PEF processing of milk.” Ieee Transactions on Industry Applications 50(2), 1402-1409 (2014). [cited by applicant]
Gao, W. et al., “Membrane fouling control in ultrafiltration technology for drinking water production: A review.” Desalination 272(1), 1-8 (2011). [cited by applicant]
Heraldy, E. et al., In Application of quantitative XRD on the precipitation of struvite from Brine Water, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, IOP Publishing: 2017; p. 012015. [cited by applicant]
Hoek, E.M.V. et al., “Modeling the effects of fouling on full-scale reverse osmosis processes.” Journal of Membrane Science 314(1 ), 33-49 (2008). [cited by applicant]
Huotari, H.M. et al., “Cross flow Membrane Filtration Enhanced by an External DC Electric Field: A Review.” Chemical Engineering Research and Design 77(5), 461-468 (1999). [cited by applicant]
Hydroflow USA, “How Hydropath Technology Works.” https://www.hydroflow-usa.com/Technology, 5 pgs (2018). [cited by applicant]
Hydroflow USA, “Improve Water Filtration & Purification.” https://hydroflow-usa.com/Filtration (2018). [cited by applicant]
Janssen, E.M.L. et al., “Aquatic photochemical kinetics of benzotriazole and structurally related compounds.” Environmental Science—Processes & Impacts 17(5), 939-946 (2015). [cited by applicant]
Jianguo, W. et al., “Effects of Alternating Electromagnetic Field on Calcium Carbonate Scaling Process.” Jiang, L. ( ed), pp. 527-534, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg. (2012). [cited by applicant]
Jonsson, G., et al. “Fundamentals in Reverse Osmosis.” Comprehensive Membrane Science and Engineering, pp. 1-22, Elsevier, New York (2010). [cited by applicant]
Kang, S., et al., “Antibacterial effects of carbon nanotubes: Size does matter.” Langmuir 24(13), 6409-6413 (2008). [cited by applicant]
Kim, H.J. et al., “High-performance reverse osmosis CNT/polyamide nanocomposite membrane by controlled interfacial interactions.” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 6(4), 2819-2829 (2014). [cited by applicant]
Le Corre, K. S. et al., Phosphorus recovery from wastewater by struvite crystallization: A review. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 2009, 39 (6), 433-477. [cited by applicant]
Le Corree, K.S. et al., “Struvite crystallisation and recovery using a stainless steel structure as a seed material.” Water Res; 2007; 41; 2449-2456. [cited by applicant]
Li, J. et al. “Quantitative study of the effect of electromagnetic field on scale deposition on nanofiltration membranes via UTDR.” Water Research 41(20), 4595-4610 (2007). [cited by applicant]
Li, M.F. et al., “Ultrafiltration membranes functionalized with lipophilic bismuth dimercaptopropanol nanoparticles: Ant⋅⋅fouling behavior and mechanisms.” Chemical Engineering Journal 313, 293-300 (2017). [cited by applicant]
Lin, J.C. et al. “Membrane fouling mitigation: Membrane cleaning.” Separation Science and Technology 45(7), 858-872 (2010). [cited by applicant]
Lutz, H. “Ultrafiltration: Fundamentals and Engineering.” Comprehensive Membrane Science and Engineering. Drioli, E. and Giorno, L. (eds), pp. 115-140, Elsevier, New York (2010). [cited by applicant]
Martell, A. et al., “Critically selected stability constants of metal complexes.” NIST Standard Reference Database 46, Texas A&M University (1998). [cited by applicant]
Masliyah, J.H. et al., “Electrokinetic and Colloid Transport Phenomena.” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey (2006). [cited by applicant]
Meneses, N. et al., pH-changes during pulsed electric field treatments—Numerical simulation and in situ impact on polyphenoloxidase inactivation. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 2011, 12 (4), 499-504. [cited by applicant]
Morel, F.M.M. Table 6.1 p. 244, Wiley, New York (1983). [cited by applicant]
Pan, Z. et al. “Membrane technology coupled with electrochemical advanced oxidation processes for organic wastewater treatment: Recent advances and future prospects.” Chemical Engineering Journal 376 (2019): 120909, 19 … [cited by applicant]
Shen, Y., et al. “A critical review on electric field-assisted membrane processes: implications for fouling control, water recovery, and future prospects.” Membranes 11.11 (2021): 820, 36 pages. [cited by applicant]