Electrochemical energy storage devices

1. A energy storage device comprising:

a cathodic material in an activated state; and

an anodic material in an activated state;

wherein:

the energy storage device exhibits an open circuit voltage of about 0.2 V to about 1.4 V;

the cathodic material is covalently attached to, or confined within, a first polymer matrix, the first polymer matrix configured to prevent or minimize substantial diffusion of the cathodic material; and

the anodic material is a phenazine, a phenothiazine, a triphenodithiazine, a carbazole, a indolocarbazole, a biscarbazole, or a ferrocene covalently attached to, or confined within, a second polymer matrix, the second polymer matrix configured to prevent or minimize substantial diffusion of the anodic material.

2. The energy storage device of claim 1 that exhibits an open circuit voltage of about 0.6 V to about 0.8 V.

3. The energy storage device of claim 1 further comprising an electrolyte.

4. The energy storage device of claim 3 , wherein the electrolyte comprises a solvent and salt is a metal salt or an ammonium salt.

5. The energy storage device of claim 1 , wherein the cathodic material is a ferrocenium compound or 1,2,4,5-tetracyanobenzene.

6. The energy storage device of claim 1 , wherein the cathodic material is 1,2,4,5-tetracyanobenzene.

7. The energy storage device of claim 1 , wherein the cathodic material, the anodic material, or the cathodic and anodic materials are electrochromic.

8. The energy storage device of claim 1 which is a battery, capacitor, or supercapacitor.

9. The energy storage device of claim 1 , wherein the anodic compound is represented by:

wherein:

E is S or NR 10 ;

R 1 and R 10 are individually an alkyl group interrupted by at least one ammonium group;

R 2 -R 9 are individually H, F, Cl, Br, I, CN, OR 11 , SR 11 , NO 2 , alkyl, alkoxy, aryl, amino, or any two adjacent groups of R 2 -R 9 may join to form a monocyclic, polycyclic, or heterocyclic group;

each R 11 is individually H or alkyl; and

R 12 is an alkylene group.

10. The energy storage device of claim 9 , wherein E is NR 10 and R 2 -R 9 are H or OR 11 .

11. The energy storage device of claim 9 , wherein the anodic compound is represented by:

wherein:

each R 13 is individually H or alkyl;

R 14 is an alkyl group interrupted by at least one ammonium group.

12. The energy storage device of claim 11 , wherein R 1 and R 14 are represented by:

R 15 -R 18 are individually H or alkyl;

n is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12;

n′ is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12; and

x is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12.

13. The energy storage device of claim 12 , wherein n is 4, x is 2, and n′ is 11.

14. A energy storage device comprising:

a first cell comprising an anodic material in an activated state;

a second cell comprising a cathodic material in an activated state;

a porous separator isolating the first cell from the second cell; and

wherein:

the cathodic material is a ferrocenium compound or 1,2,4,5-tetracyanobenzene; and

the anodic material is a phenazine, a phenothiazine, a triphenodithiazine, a carbazole, a indolocarbazole, a biscarbazole, or a ferrocene.

15. The energy storage device of claim 13 further comprising an electrolyte.

16. The energy storage device of claim 14 , wherein the separator comprises an ion exchange membrane or a size-exclusion membrane.

17. The energy storage device of claim 14 which is a battery, capacitor, or supercapacitor.

18. The energy storage device of claim 14 , wherein the cathodic material, the anodic material, or the cathodic and anodic materials are electrochromic.